ENGLISH COURSE

LEVEL ONE
COMPILED by
Justin HITIMANA, MA
 Program Structure
Introduction
• This course is intended for advanced beginners in
the English language. They will have 70 to 100
hours of class work during this course. So, they will
be able to use English to achieve a certain number
of practical aims. It will incorporate the
grammatical aspect of Parts of Speech. In classes
more of group-work assignments will be used as an
approach to emphasize the practicability of the
course as a language course.
 Learning outcomes

• Having successfully completed this module unit,

students should be able to demonstrate
knowledge, especially with the ability to identify
the respective parts of a sentence correctly.
Beyond identifying parts of speech in a sentence
the learner should be able to construct
sentences with a simple structure using all the
parts of speech. The skills to be emphasized in
this level are the speaking and writing skills.
 Indicative content

Parts of speech
1. Articles
• Indefinite articles
• Definite article
• Zero Article
2. Nouns
• Countable and uncountable nouns
• Common and proper nouns
• Abstract and concrete nouns
• Noun number (singular and plural)
• Noun gender
• Occupations (Expressing occupations)
 Indicative content (cont’d)
3. Pronouns
• Personal pronouns
• Possessive pronouns
4. Adjectives
• Types of adjectives
• Position of adjectives
• Formation of adjectives (introduction)
• Comparisons of adjectives
• Numbers (Cardinal and ordinal numbers)
• Nationalities (Nouns and adjectives related to nationalities)
 Indicative content (cont’d)
5. Common Tenses (Time Markers)
PAST PRESENT FUTURE

SIMPLE inflection inflection Will/shall + verb

CONTINUOUS Was/were Is/are verb+ing Will/shall be +

verb+ing verb+ ing
PERFECT Had+ verb in Has/have + verb Will/shall have+
perfect in perfect verb in perfect
PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
 Indicative content (cont’d)
6. Adverbs
• Types of adverbs
• Formation of adverbs
• Position of adverbs
7. Conjunctions
• Introduction to coordination, subordination and correlative
conjunctions
8. Quantifiers
• Much, many, a lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, lots of, little, a little, few,
a few.
9. Common Prepositions: (of, in, to, for, with, on, at, from, by, about, as,
into, like, through, after, over, between, out, against, during, without,
before, under, around, among)
 Indicative content (cont’d)
10. Comprehension: In this topic the teacher
will choose passages of which he will use and
design both open and closed questions and
teach the learners on how to answer the
questions without a copy paste approach. I.e.
students should be led on how to synthesize
simple sentences to answer questions other
than copy and paste sentences from the
passage.
 GRADING SCALE

Activity Score%
1 Group Assignments 10
2 Individual Assignments 10
3 Online quizzes 10
4 Tests 30
5 Final Examination 40
6 Total 100
 [Link]:INTRODUCING ONESELF AND INTRODUCING OTHER PEOPLE

Activity (1)
a. Introduce yourself to some other students. Tell them your
names, where you come from, what you do, …
b. Interview your teacher. Find out as much information as
possible about him/her (Write ten or more personal
questions to ask him/her).
c. Work in pairs. Interview your partner and find out as much
information as possible about him/her. For example: Where
do you live? Who live (s) with you? How old are you? Are you
a patient person? What do you do? Tell the class about your
partner.
 Personal Information
Activity (2)
• Two guests are registering at a hotel in
Kigali/Rwamagana. The receptionist is asking
them for information. Ask two students for
information and fill in the registration form
below. Presents findings to the class. Which
questions did you ask for each information?
 Registration Form
(Please complete in BLOCK LETTERS)
• Surname------------------------------------------------
• First name(s) ------------------------------------------
• Nickname ---------------------------------------------
• Nationality --------------------------------------------
• Marital Status -----------------------------------------
• Occupation --------------------------------------------
• Company -----------------------------------------------
• Home address ----------------------------------------
• Signature ----------------------------------------------
 II. Parts of Speech
[Link]
The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of
adjective. The is called the definite article because it
usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned
noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because
they are used to refer to something in a less specific
manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are
also listed among the noun markers or determiners
because they are almost invariably followed by a noun
(or something else acting as a noun). Articles are used
to clarify if a noun is specific or if a noun is not specific.
 Definite Article - “The”

• There is only one definite article, “the”. When used before a

noun, it specifies a particular noun as opposed to any one.
Examples: the dog (a specific, identifiable dog); the walls
(specific, identifiable walls).
• The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the
noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:
The moon circles the earth. The is required when the noun it
refers to represents something in the abstract: The United
States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as
opposed to the use of public transit. The is required when the
noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the
text.
 Indefinite Articles - “a” and “an”
• There are two indefinite articles, “a” and
“an”. These are used with a noun when a
specific noun is not being pointed at.
• Examples: a dog (any dog); an apple (any
apple)
 Zero Articles

• Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do

not use articles with the names of languages
("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word
Chinese refers to the people, the definite article
might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping
to get the next Olympics."), the names of sports
("She plays badminton and basketball."), and
academic subjects ("She's taking economics and
math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
 Zero Article (cont’d)
• When they are generic, non-count nouns and
sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles.
"We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music.
We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase"
comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the
music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is
used without an article and then referred to in a
subsequent reference, it will have become specific and
will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed
computers in the Learning Center this summer. The
computers, unfortunately, don't work." (see exercises)
 [Link]
• A noun is the name of a person, place, thing,
or idea. Whatever exists, we assume, can be
named, and that name is a noun.
• Nouns fall under two main classes: proper and
common nouns. Common nouns can be
further subdivided into the following types of
nouns: countable and uncountable nouns,
concrete and abstract nouns, collective nouns,
compound nouns
 a. Proper Nouns

• A proper noun is a specific name of a place, a

person, or a thing. The first letter of a proper
noun is always represented by a capital letter.
• Examples: John Peter, Ndayambaje (names of
people), Kigali, New York (names of places),
Eucalyptus (name of a tree).
 b. Common Nouns

• Common nouns do not name a specific

person, place, thing or idea. Common nouns
are not capitalized unless they are at the
beginning of a sentence or part of a title. They
include different types notably:
 i. Countable nouns
• Countable nouns are those that have a
singular and plural form. They name things
that can be counted separately. Most nouns
would be countable or count nouns.
• Examples: Book, desk, bottle, etc.
ii .Uncountable/Non-countable nouns
• Non-countable nouns do not have a plural
form, even though the word may imply more
than one part to the thing represented by the
word.
• Examples: bread, information, milk, water,
sugar, etc.
 iii. Concrete nouns

• Concrete nouns are words that represent

objects one can see, hear, touch, smell, and
taste with the senses.
• Examples: Door, computer, flower, etc.
 vi. Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are anything one cannot see,

hear, touch, smell or taste.
• Examples: beauty, charity, courage, fear, etc.
5. Collective nouns.
Collective nouns are a singular form of a word
that refers to a group of things.
Examples: crowd, team, flock, etc.
 v. Compound nouns

A compound noun is a noun that is made of two

or more words.
Examples: hairbrush, brother-in-law, etc.
Note: Some compound nouns are written as one
word (bookstore), others with a hyphen
(brother-in-law), and others in two separate
words (hot dog, can opener).
 Noun formation

• A number of nouns in English are formed by

using prefixes. Most of these prefixes are from
Latin or Greek languages. Here are some
examples but just a few:
 Examples
PREFIX MEANING ILLUSTRATION
1. Intra, intro Within Intramural _within a school
[Link],co,col,con, With, together Combine_ merge with
cor Corroborate_ confirm
Collateral_subordinate,
connected
3. se Away, aside Secede_ withdraw
Seclude_ shut away
4. domin To rule Dominate_ have power
Dominant_ prevailing
5. mon, monit To warn Admonish_ warn
Premonition_ foreboding
6. Contra, contro Against Contravene_ conflict with
Controversy_ dispute
7. de Down away Decadence_ deterioration
Debase_ lower in value
[Link] Around Circumspect_ cautious (looking
around)
[Link] Both Ambiguous_ of double meaning
Ambivalent_ having two
conflicting emotions
 Noun formation (cont’d)
Many words in English are formed from a set of Latin roots
with different prefixes and suffixes. These words are usually
fairly formal. Here are some examples:
a. spect to mean see, look (respect, suspect, prospect)
b. vert to mean turn (revert, convert, divert)
c. port to mean carry, take (transport, export, support)
d. duc, to mean lead (educate, conduct, produce)
e. pose, pone to mean place, put (postpone, depose, impose)
f. press to mean press, push (impress, depress, express)
 Noun formation (cont’d)
We form abstract nouns by using a number of suffices. The most common are:
-ment, -ion, -ness and –ity.
NOTE:
• -ment and –ion are usually used to make verbs into abstract nouns whereas
–ness and –ity are added to adjectives; -ion sometimes becomes –tion, -
sion,-ation or –ition.
Examples:
1. achieve achievement. (adjust, amaze, discourage, improve, invest, replace,
retire)
2. actaction . (collect, combine, reduce, recognize, product, imagine, allude)
3. bitter bitterness (attractive, aggressive, careless, ugly, tender,
permissive, conscious)
4. curious curiosity (absurd, anonymous, complex, sensitive, hostile,
generous, prosperous)
 Noun formation (cont’d)
There are other less common suffices associated with abstract
nouns. Those are:-ship, -dom, -th, and- hood.
• -ship and –hood are usually used in combination with other
nouns whereas –th combines with adjectives to form an abstract
noun and –dom can combine with either a noun or an adjective.
• Examples:
1. own ownership (apprentice, companion, member, partner,
relation)
2. wise wisdom (free, king, wise, star, martyr, bore)
3. Long length (strong, deep, wide, warm)
4. Child childhood (adult, brother, mother, (wo)man,
neighbour)
 Noun formation (cont’d)
There are also a number of abstract nouns
which do not use any suffix at all.
• Here are some examples of these: Anger,
Faith, Luck, Sense, sight, Speed, Chance,
Thought, Reason, Idea, Calm, Humor,
Principle, Rage, Fear.
Noun number (singular & plural of nouns)
Subject and verb agreement
Using expressions of quantity: The verb is determined by the noun
(pronoun) which follows an expression of quantity such as some of,
most of, half of, two-thirds of, ninety per cent of, etc.:
• Some of the book is good.
• Some of the books are good.
• A lot of the equipment is new.
• A lot of my friends are here.
Note: The number is the subject but a number of is an expression of
quantity. It is followed by a plural noun and a plural verb.
-The great number of students is absent today.
- A great number of students are absent.
 Using singular words
Every, each, everyone, everybody, etc always take singular verbs:
• Every man, woman, and child needs love and understanding.
• Each book and magazine is listed in the catalogue.
• Each of the students has a schedule.
• Everyone is here.
• Everybody is here.
Note: a. Notice the pattern with one of: one of +plural noun + singular
verb:
• One of my friends needs some help.
Subjects with none of are considered singular in very formal English, but
plural verbs are frequently used in informal English:
• None of the boys is here (formal).
• None of the boys are here (informal).
 Some irregularities
- Some words take‘s’ but are singular and take singular verbs:
News, The United States, The Netherlands, etc.
Some words do not take‘s’ but are plural and take plural verbs:
People, police, etc.
Note: The word ‘people’ can have a final‘s’ (peoples) only when
it is used to refer to nations or ethnic groups:
• All the peoples (= nations)of the world desire peace.
- Expressions of time, money and distance are usually singular:
• Eight hours of sleep is enough.
• Ten dollars is too much to pay a pen.
• Five thousand miles is too far to travel on foot.
 Some irregularities (cont’d)
- Nouns ending in ‘–ics’ take singular verbs when they
refer to an area of study such as physics, economics,
linguistics, etc. however some ‘-ics’ nouns take plural
verbs if they refer to a particular situation instead of a
field of study:
• Mathematics is easy for her.
• Statistics is a field of study.
• The statistics in that report are not accurate.
 Some irregularities (cont’d)
- Nouns of nationality that end in ‘–ese; -ch; or –sh’
take plural verbs since, when preceded by –the, they
refer to people, and not to the language:
• Chinese is a difficult language.
• The Chinese are kind and friendly.
• French is spoken in many African countries.
• The French are famous for their good wines.
 Some irregularities (cont’d)
- Sometimes, a word that is usually an adjective
is used as a noun. It is preceded by ‘the’ and
refers to people who have this quality:
• The poor have many problems.
• The rich get richer.
• Note: The poor = people who are poor. Other
examples are: the old, the young, the blind,
the deaf, the living, the dead, etc.
 Some irregularities (cont’d)
In formal usage, a collective noun takes a plural verb. But
it can take a singular verb if it is considered a single unit
instead of a collection of various individual people: Such
nouns are: audience, class, committee, couple, crowd,
faculty, family, government, group, public, staff, team, etc.:
• My family are loving and supportive. They are always
ready to help me (formal).
• My family is loving and supportive. It is always ready to
help me (informal).
• The faculty have signed their contracts.
 The plural of nouns
Nouns take‘s’ in plural. But some words are irregular:
- when the final ‘–y’ is preceded by a consonant; we change
the ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add ‘-es’:
Examples: Baby → babies; duty → duties; landlady →
landladies but valley → valleys; day → days.
- If a noun ends in ‘-fe’ or ‘–f’, the ending is changed to “–ves”
except for beliefs, chiefs, roofs, staffs:
Examples: Wife → wives; thief →thieves; shelf → shelves.
- We add ‘-es’ to nouns that end in –o except for pianos, zoos,
radios: Tomato → tomatoes; hero → heroes; mosquito →
mosquitoes.
 Irregular noun plural

1. Complete the table below:

Singular Plural
Child
feet
Goose
lice
Man
Mouse
oxen
teeth
woman
policeman
 Irregular noun plural (cont’d)
The plural possessive form of nouns in these
examples is also irregular:
• The girl’s ideas → the girls’ ideas.
• The woman’s ideas → the women’s ideas
We add ‘-es’ to nouns ending in – sh; - ch; - s; -z;
and –x except for monarchs, stomachs:
• dish → dishes; church → churches; class →
classes; quiz → quizzes; box → boxes; etc.
 Same forms in plural and singular
The plural and singular are the same in these words: Complete the table
below:

Singular Plural
Deer
Fish
Sheep
species
means
series
 Borrowed /Adapted words
Some of the words that English has borrowed or adapted from other
languages have foreign plurals: Complete the table below and make
appropriate rules to apply for the plural of these words:
Singular Plural
Datum
Bacterium
Medium
Criterion
Phenomenon
Stimulus
Nucleus
Radius
Formula
Vertebra
Vita
Index
appendix
 Nouns’ Gender
• Masculine: men, boys and male animals (pronoun he/they)
• Feminine: women, girls and female animals pronoun (she/they)
• Neuter: inanimate things, animals whose sex we don’t know and
sometimes babies whose sex we don’t know (pronoun (it/they).
• Exceptions: ships and sometimes cars and other vehicles when
regarded with affection or respect are considered feminine.
Countries when referred to by name are also normally
considered feminine.
Examples:
-The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.
-Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.
 Masculine/Feminine
• Nouns denoting people
Different forms:
• Boy: girl/ bachelor: spinster/ bridegroom: bride/ father:
mother/ gentleman: lady/husband: wife/man:
woman/nephew: niece/son: daughter/ uncle: aunt/
widower: widow/king: queen, duke: duchess/ earl:
countess/lord: lady/prince: princess
• Main exceptions: Some nouns denote both masculine and
feminine nouns.
e.g. baby, child, cousin, infant, parent, relation, relative,
spouse, teenager
 Masculine/Feminine
The majority of nouns indicating occupation have the
same form:
• e.g.: Artist, assistant, cook, dancer, driver, doctor, guide,
minister, lecturer, etc.
Main exceptions: actor: actress/ conductor: conductress/
heir: heiress/ hero: heroine/ host: hostess/ manager:
manageress/ steward: stewardess/ waiter: waitress
Also salesman: saleswoman etc., but sometimes –person
is used instead of -man, -woman: salesperson,
spokesperson.
 Animals’ forms
Domestic animals and many of the larger wild
animals have different forms:
Examples: bull: cow/ cock: hen/ dog: bitch/
duck: drake/ gander: goose/ lion: lioness/ ram:
ewe/ stag: doe/ stallion: mare/ tiger: tigress
 Exercise
1. Match each word in list A to its female equivalent in list B:
List A: god; son; actor; uncle; male; stallion; cock ; lion; hero;
heir; ram; prince; monk; nephew; king; tailor; bachelor;
waiter; salesman; policeman; bridegroom; bull; boar; barber;
widower; steward

List B: spinster; female; goddess; hen; heroine; heiress;

widow; lioness; hairdresser; mare; niece; nun; ewe;
saleswoman; princess; queen ; policewoman; dressmaker;
waitress; bride; cow; stewardess; sow; actress; aunt; daughter
 3. PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun (Pro means
“in place of” and then noun).
Types of pronouns: In English, we distinguish personal pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, possessive
pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, indefinite
pronouns and relative pronouns.
a. Personal pronouns
Pronouns like I, you, etc. are called personal pronouns because
they refer to grammatical persons: 1st person (I, we); 2nd person
(you); 3rd person (he, she, it, one, they).
Note: In English, we distinguish 2 forms of personal pronouns
namely Subject and object forms.
 Table of personal pronouns

Forms Subject Object

Singular 1st person I Me

2nd person You You
3rd person He/ she/ it Him/her/it

Plural 1st person We Us

2nd person You You
3rd person They them
 Use of subject and Object pronouns

• Object pronouns are often used after be: e.g. Who

is it?- It is me/him/her/us/them.
• We do not use I, she, etc. on their own in answers
to questions with who? In everyday speech, we use
object pronouns: e.g. who told him?-me/Not I. Or
we say: I did/ I didn’t.
• After as and than, we use object pronouns. e.g.
He’s taller than me/ as tall as me. Or we use
subject pronoun and verb: He’s taller than I am /as
tall as I am.
 Uses of it
• “It” is normally used of a thing or an animal whose sex we don’t
know, and sometimes of a baby or a small child: e.g. Where is my
map? I left it on the table.; Look at that bird. It always comes to my
window.; Her new baby is tiny. It only weighs 2 kilos.
• “It” can be used of people in sentences such us: Ann (on phone):
Who is that/who is it? Bill: it’s me; Is that Tom over there?-No, it’s
Peter.
• “It” is used in expressions of time, distance, weather, temperature,
tide: What time is it?- It is six.; What’s the date?- It’s the third of
May.; How far is it to York?-It is 400 kilometers.; How long does it
take to get there?- It depends on how you go.; It is raining.; It’s full
moon tonight.; In winter it’s/it is dark at six o’clock.; It is high
tide/low tide.
 b. Demonstrative pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns are words that are

used to show someone or something.
• In English, we distinguish two types of
demonstrative pronouns depending on
position of someone or something compared
to the speaker.
 Table of Demonstrative pronouns
Distance Near Far

Number
Singular This That

Plural These Those

 c. Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are words that are used when asking

questions.
For persons
- subject : who (pronoun) e.g. who pays the bill? Who are these
boys?
- Object: whom, who (pronoun) e.g. (Very formal English) Whom
did the committee appoint? (Informal spoken English) Who did
you see?
- Possessive: Whose (pronoun and adjective) e.g. whose car
broke down? (Whose as subject); Whose umbrella did you
borrow? (Whose as object of the verb); Whose are these? Note:
In the two first examples, whose is used as an adjective whereas
in the last example, whose is used as a pronoun.
 Interrogative Pronouns(cont’d)
For things
- Subject/object: what (pronoun and adjective) e.g. what bird
is that?; What country do you come from?; What makes that
noise? What did he say? Note: In the two first examples, what
is used as an adjective whereas in the two last examples, what
is used as a pronoun.
For people or things when the choice is restricted: Which
(pronoun and adjective). Which pronoun is used alone as the
subject e.g. which of you knows the formula?; Which adjective
can be used of people when there is only a very slight idea of
restriction? e.g. Which poet (of all poets) do you like best?
 d. Possessive Pronouns

• Possessive pronouns are words that are used

to refer to the possessor, not to the thing
possessed.
Note: The following table contains personal
pronouns, possessive adjectives and possessive
pronouns. It shows their relationships
depending on the people.
 Table
Number Personal Possessive Possessive
pronouns adjectives pronouns

Singular 1st P I My Mine

2nd p You Your Yours
3rd p He/she/it His /her/its His /hers/-

Plural 1st p We Our Ours

2nd p You Your Yours
3rd p They Their Theirs
 e. Reflexive pronouns

• Reflexive pronouns are words that are used

when the subject and the object are the same.
E.g. Himself: Tom cut himself while he was
shaving. (Not Tom cut him)
 Table of reflexive pronouns
Person 1st Person 2nd person 3rd person
Number
Singular Myself Yourself Himself
Herself
itself
Plural Ourselves Yourselves Themselves
 Examples
• I don’t want you to pay for me. I will pay for
myself.
• The old lady sat in a corner talking to herself.
• If you want more to eat, help yourselves.
• Don’t get angry. Control yourself.
Note: Reflexive pronouns can also be used for
emphasizing a pronoun or a noun.
E.g. The king himself gave her the medal; Ann
herself opened the door; I did it myself.
Special verbs used with reflexive pronouns
• There aren’t many verbs in English which we must always use with
reflexive pronouns: absent oneself, avail oneself (of), and pride oneself
(on). E.g. Monica absented herself from work; Jim prides himself on his
cooking.
• We often use reflexive pronouns with these verbs: amuse, blame, cut,
dry, enjoy, hurt and introduce. E.g. Don’t blame yourself; I enjoyed
myself at the party.
• We sometimes use reflexive pronouns after verbs like dress, hide, shave
and wash. For emphasis or to show that something has been done with
an effort. E.g. Polly has now learnt how to dress herself.
• Verbs like get up, sit down, stand up, wake up and get wet, get tired,
get dressed, get married are not normally reflexive in English. E.g. I sat
down with difficulty.
• We might use a reflexive only for emphasis: E.g. I sat myself down with
difficulty.
 f. Indefinite pronouns

• Indefinite pronouns are words that are used to refer to someone

or something without being specific. Those are for instance:
someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything,
no one, nobody, and nothing.
• Compounds with some, any and no follow the above rule
E.g. – Someone/somebody wants to speak to you on the phone.
- No one/nobody has ever given me a free tick for anything.
- Do you need anything from the teacher?
-Would anyone/anybody like a drink?
Note also:
• I drink anything= I don’t mind what I drink.
• Anyone will tell you where the house is.
 G. Reciprocal pronouns
• A Reciprocal pronoun is a word used to
express reciprocity:
Example: Tom loves Ann and Ann loves Tom.
Tom and Ann love each other.
Tom and Ann love one another.
 H. Relative pronouns

• Relative pronouns are words that are used to introduce relative clauses. A
relative clause tells us which person or thing (or what kind of person or
thing) the speaker means. E.g. The man who lives next door is very friendly.
The underlined word is a relative pronoun. The words that are in dark blue
make a relative clause.
• In English, the following words are referred to as relative pronouns: who,
whom, whose, which, that, where, when and why (sometimes).
• Who and whom are used for persons only. Who is used in the place of a
subject whereas whom is used in the place of an object. E.g. -The man lives
next door. He is friendly. The man who lives next door is friendly. (In
this sentence, who refers to the noun phrase “the man” which is a subject. I
talked to Mary. She is a nurse.
The lady whom I talked to is a nurse. (In this sentence, whom refers
to the noun Mary which is an object.
 Other relative pronouns
• Whose is used for both persons and objects to show the possessor. E.g. John
is a member of parliament. His daughter is a Harvard
graduate.
John whose daughter is a Harvard graduate is a member of
parliament.
• Which is used for objects only. E.g. I hired a car. It broke down.
The car which I hired broke down.
• That can be used for both person or object. E.g. It is the manager that we
want. The car that I hired broke down.
• Note: When, where and why are used as relative adverbs.
• When is used to talk about time, where is used to talk about place and why
is used to give a reason. E.g. The hotel where we stayed wasn’t very clean.
The year when he was born is not known. John is sick the reason why he
didn’t attend class yesterday.
Table of Personal Pronouns, possessives and
reflexive pronouns
Personal Personal Possessive Possessive Reflexive
pronouns pronouns adjectives pronouns pronouns
subjects objects
I Me My Mine Myself

You You Your Yours Yourself

He Him His His Himself

She Her Her Hers Herself

It It Its - Itself

We Us Our Ours Ourselves

They Them Their Theirs Themselves

 4. Adjectives
An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun. In this case, "modifies" means "tells
more about." Adjectives are words that describe things. In other words, an
adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to qualify a noun or noun phrase,
giving more information about the object signified. E.g. The long-eared rabbit
nibbled the little carrots.
i. Types of adjectives:
Adjectives can be categorized into two types: limiting and descriptive adjectives.
A. Limiting Adjectives
Limiting adjectives are used to specify only certain or specific nouns. They are
limited to the noun that they describe and hence, are known as limiting
adjectives. The types of limiting adjectives are possessive adjectives,
demonstrative adjectives, numerical/quantitative adjectives, interrogative
adjectives, and proper adjectives. eg- His book (possessive adjective);
Shakespearean drama (proper adjective)
 Limiting adjectives
• Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. They
commonly describe something in terms of nationality,
religious affiliation, or culture. Like proper nouns, proper
adjectives have their first letter capitalized. Some examples of
proper adjectives include: American, French, Japanese, Latino,
Asian, Australian, Catholic, Lutheran, Jewish (N.B: Exercise on
nationalities)
• Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective modifies a noun by telling whom it
belongs to. It answers the question "Whose?" Possessive
adjectives include his, her, its, my, our, their, and your. E.g.: You
can share my rice; Have you seen their house?
 Limiting adjectives (cont’d)
• Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives that, these, this and those answer the question
"Which?“ E.g.: I'm going to open that present; Those socks look warm.
A demonstrative adjective may look like a demonstrative pronoun, but it is
used differently in the sentence: it is an adjective when used to modify a
noun or pronoun.
• Interrogative Adjectives
The interrogative adjectives what and which are used in a question. They
help to ask about something. E.g.: What movie do you want to see? Which
leaves change color first?
An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative pronoun, but it is
used differently in the sentence: it is an adjective when used to modify a
noun or pronoun.
 Limiting adjectives (cont’d)
• Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective gives indefinite, or general,
information. Often, it answers the question "How much?"
Some common indefinite adjectives are all, any, each,
every, few, many, and some. E.g.: Many children like
dinosaurs; Did you want some bananas?
An indefinite adjective may look like an indefinite
pronoun, but it is used differently in the sentence: it is an
adjective when used to modify a noun or pronoun.
• Distributive adjectives: each, every, either, neither, etc.
 Limiting adjectives (cont’d)
Quantitative/numerical adjectives: some, any, little/few, no, many, much,
one, twenty, etc. ( Exercises on cardinal and ordinal numbers & on quantifiers)
• Little, a little are used with uncountable nouns
• Few, a few are used with countable nouns
• Little and few (without a) are negative ideas. E.g: -Hurry up! We have got
little time (= not much, not enough time, hardly any time); He is not
popular. He has few friends (= not many, not enough friends, hardly any
friends).
• “A little” and “a few” are more positive ideas. A little/a few= some, a
small amount or small number: E.g: Let us have a drink. We have got a
little time before the train leaves (= some time, enough time to have a
drink); I enjoy my life here. I have a few friends and we meet quite often.
(A few friends= some friends/not many but enough to have a good time)
 Descriptive Adjectives

“Descriptive adjectives” make the largest group among the types of

adjectives. Descriptive adjectives describe the noun in detail by assigning an
attribute of that noun. The list of descriptive adjectives is considered nearly
unending as there are adjectives describing nearly every noun. Descriptive
adjectives can be further classified under simple and compound adjectives.
Simple Adjectives: Simple adjectives are single words that are commonly
used to describe a noun. e.g.: good, happy, bad, thin, etc
Compound Adjectives: Two or more adjectives, used consecutively, that
describe the same noun, are known as compound adjectives. They are
hyphenated to avoid confusion between the two adjectives. The most
common compound adjectives are the ones when adjectives precede nouns
like 'blue-sky' or when adjectives are preceded by verbs as in 'feel-good'. But
the following are also other commonly known examples:
e.g: middle-aged man; Short-sighted child; broad-shouldered boy; open-toed
sandals; thin-lipped lady; slim-hipped policewoman; left-handed young man;
long-legged bird. (see sample list of descriptive adjectives on pp.76-78).
 B. Formation of adjectives

Formation of adjectives is similar to nouns’ formation in that both they require the
use of affixes (suffix/prefix).
• Some of the suffixes used include the following –able (capable of being) e.g.
manageable; -ful (full of) e.g. boastful; -ic. E.g. energetic; -ive (capable of being)
e.g. attractive; -ant: e.g. hesitant; -ible (like –able): e.g. permissible; -(i)an
(historical period, etc) e.g Victorian, -ish (have the quality of): e.g. foolish,
reddish; -ly (have this quality): e.g. friendly; -ous; e.g. humorous.
• Apart from suffixes, adjectives can also be formed by using prefixes. A prefix
added to an adjective generally has a negative effect. E.g. I think it’s possible to
solve the problem. I think it’s impossible to solve the problem.
• Some of the prefixes include the following un-: e.g. uncooked, unimaginable;
in-: e.g. incapable, inhuman; il- : e.g. illegal, illegible; im-: immoral, impractical;
dis-: e.g. dishonest, disagreeable; ir-: irresponsible, irregular. Note: Pre- (pre-
war) and hyper- (hyperactive) do not create opposites but modify the meaning
of the word in some way.
 C. Form and Position of adjectives

Adjectives have the same form whether they refer to people or things in the
singular or plural. e.g. He’s a tall man; It’s a tall building.
The position varies according to attributive and predicative use. An
adjective is said to be attributive when it is used before a noun. E.g. This
book is mine. Which boy are you talking about? An adjective is said to be
predicative when it is used with verbs like be, appear, sound, seem, get/grow
(=become), keep, look (=appear), make, taste, turn, etc. E.g. Tom became rich;
Ann seems happy; Tom felt cold; He got/grew impatient; The idea sounds
interesting. Note: Some adjectives can change the meaning before a noun or
after be. Before a noun:- John is an old friend of mine. (=I’ve known him for a
long time); An early/late train (=a train scheduled to run earlier or late in the
day. After be:- My friend, John is very old. (=old in years); The train is
early/late. (=it is before/after its proper time). Poor meaning without any
money can precede the noun or follow a verb. Poor meaning unfortunate
must precede the noun. Poor meaning weak/inadequate precedes nouns
such as student, worker, etc. But when used with inanimate nouns can be in
either position. e.g. He has poor sight; His sight is poor.
 Use of and

With attributive adjectives, “and” is used chiefly

when there are two or more adjectives of color.
It is then placed before the last of these. E.g. a
green and brown carpet; a red, white and blue
flag.
With predicative adjectives, “and” is placed
between the last two: E.g. The day was cold,
wet and windy.
 Order of adjectives of quality
Several variations are possible but a fairly usual order is: adjectives
expressing
Article – quantitative - opinion - size (except little) – age – shape –
color – origin (from) – past participle – material (noun)- Purpose (these
are really gerunds used to form compound nouns such as walking
stick, riding boots). E.g.: A long sharp knife; New hexagonal coins; An
old plastic bucket; A small round bath; Blue velvet curtains; An elegant
French clock; a valuable brown Victorian handmade teak cupboard.
Note: Adjectives of personality/emotion come after adjectives of
physical description, including dark, fair, pale but before colors:
e.g. - an inquisitive brown dog; a kindly black doctor; a pale anxious
girl.
 Order of adjectives: you are looking for items you
want to buy. Begin each sentence with: I am looking
for……… and then order adjectives (One is done for
Order of adjectives you)
1. Article 1. clock radio-white-Taiwanese-cheap-a-for my bed
side: I am looking for a cheap white Taiwanese clock
2. Quantitative radio for my bed side.
3. Opinion
2. sports car-well maintained-a- second hand-
4. Size (except little)
with a low mileage …
5. Age
6. Shape 3. polished-beautiful-antique-dining-table-a-
7. Color mahogany-English …
8. Origin (from)
9. Past participle 4. cotton-a- dress-summer-pink and white-for

10. Material (noun) my holiday …

11. Purpose
5. stone built-small-a- old-country Cottage

……
 Note (cont’d)
- Little, old and young are often used, not to give information, but as
part of an adjective-noun combination. They are then placed next to
their nouns. E.g. Your nephew is a nice little boy; That young man
drives too fast.
- Adjectives of personality/emotion can precede or follow
young/old: E.g.: A young ambitious man; An ambitious young man.
Young in the first example carries a stronger stress than young in the
second, so the first order is better if we wish to emphasize the age.
- Little can be used similarly : An expensive little hotel; A little sandy
beach. But small is usually better than little if we want to emphasize
the size.
 Note (cont’d)
• Fine, lovely, nice and sometimes beautiful, + adjectives of size (except
little), shape and temperature usually express approval of the size etc.
If we say a beautiful big room, a lovely warm house, nice/fine thick
steaks we imply that we like big rooms, warm houses thick steaks.
• fine, lovely and nice can be used similarly with a number of other
adjectives: e.g. a fine strong coffee, a lovely quiet beach, a nice dry day.
• When used predicatively, such pairs are separated by and: e.g.: The
coffee was fine and strong; The day was nice and dry.
• Pretty followed by another adjective with no comma between them is
an adverb of degree meaning very/quite: she’s a pretty tall girl means
she’s quite/very tall. But a pretty, tall girl or, more usually, a tall, pretty
girl means who is both tall and pretty.
(See exercises on PP.81-82) + Reading comprehension
 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES OF
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS(1).
[Link] – SYLLABLE ADJECTIVES/ADVERBS
For most one-syllable adjectives, we use –er for
the comparative form and –est for the
superlative form. After comparatives we use
than. Examples:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Old Older than The oldest
Wise Wiser than The wisest
Fast Faster than The fastest
Soon Sooner than The soonest
 Comparatives &superlatives (2)
TWO-SYLLABLE ADJECTIVES/ADVERBS ENDING IN -LY
a. For most two-syllable adjectives we use
more….than for the comparative form and the
most for the superlative form. Examples:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
Recent More recent than The most recent
Famous More famous than The most famous
Confused More confused than The most confused
Slowly More slowly than The most slowly
Carefully More carefully than The most carefully
 Comparatives &superlatives (3)
• b. For two-syllable adjectives that end in –y,
we use –er for the comparative form and –est
for the superlative form. Notice that the y is
changed to i. Examples:
Adjective Comparatives Superlative
Pretty Prettier than The prettiest
Busy Busier than The busiest
Lazy Lazier than The laziest
 Comparatives &superlatives (4)
The following two-syllable adjectives are used
with either –er or more… than for the
comparative and either –est or the most for the
superlative: able, angry, clever, cruel, friendly,
gentle, handsome, narrow, obscure, polite,
quiet, secure, simple, and stupid.
d. Adjectives with three or more syllables take
more…. than for the comparative and the most
for the superlative.
 Comparatives &superlatives (5)
IRREGULAR FORMS OF ADJECTIVES /ADVERBS

Adjective/adverb Comparative Superlative

Good/well Better than The best
Bad Worse than The worst
Little Less than The least
Smaller than The smallest
Far Farther than(distance only) The farthest
Further than ( distance or The furthest
(additional)
 COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES (6)
MAKING COMPARISONS WITH “AS……AS”
We use this comparison to express equality between two things or
people.
As +adjective/adverb +as
e.g.: Mary is as old as John
• Mary is as old as he is.
• Mary is as old as him.
• It rains as frequently here as (it does) in the country.
• Note: can, could, possible are frequently used in the completion.
e.g. :I’m working as fast as I can.
• He came as quickly as he could.
• Please come as soon as possible.
 COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES (7)
• Inferiority comparative and superlative forms are made
with “ less……..than” and the least.
Examples:
1. A bicycle is less important than a car.
2. The bicycle is the least important of all vehicles.
Note: “Less” is not usually used with one-syllable adjectives.
Instead, equality comparison in negative form is applied.
Examples:
1. Mugisha is less tall than Mugabo (considered wrong)
2. Mugisha is not as tall as Mugabo (correct)
 Exercises:
Fill in the gaps with the comparative form of the adjectives given.

1. A rock is ……………… than a leaf. (heavy)

2. Our house is ……………than yours. (big)
3. The princess is ………… than the witch. (beautiful)
4. Tom is a………………. student than Mary. (good)
5. Bicycles are ……………..than motorbikes. (safe)
6. July is………………………. than January. (hot)
7. A lion is ……………………than a cat. (dangerous)
8. Helen is ……………………….than Mary. (happy)
9. Computers are……………… than telephones. (expensive)
10. I think golf is ………………..than football. (boring)
 Fill in the gaps with the superlative form of the
adjectives given.

1. It is the ……………….shop in town. (large)

2. Monday is the ……………day of the week. (bad)
3. Ben was the ……………person in his family. (noisy)
4. Sam is the…………………. in the class. (popular)
5. Which is the ………………..subject at school? (difficult)
6. Jim is the ………………player in the football team. (good)
7. Elephants are the…………………….. animals. (heavy)
8. Let's pick the…………………… apple of the tree. (big)
9. Mary is the ……………………….girl in the class. (thin)
10. That is the ……………sofa in our house. (comfortable)
•
 Fill in the gaps with the comparative or the
superlative form of the adjectives given.

1. This armchair is ………. than the old one. (comfortable)

2. Trains are …………. than aeroplanes. (slow)
3. I bought the ………..souvenir I could afford. (expensive)
4. In this classroom there…….. are girls than boys. (many)
5. Ann is the………… child in the family. (young)
6. That TV set is the…………… of all. (cheap)
7. You are…………………… here than there. (safe)
8. Fifi is ……………………..than Kate. (pretty)
9. This is the………………. film i have ever seen. (exciting)
10. Tim is ……………………….. than Peter. (talented)
•
 5. Common English Tenses
1. Simple present Tense
a. Structure:- subject + verb (for I/you/we/they)
E.g.: They eat fish in the wet season.
- Subject + verb + s ( for he/she/it)
E.g.: He eats fish in the wet season.
b. Spelling: for verbs ending in o, s, sh, ch, x and
tch we add “es” instead of “s” to the base form
(e.g.: he does; he passes, he washes, he reaches,
he mixes he watches )
 C. Pronunciation
- “s” is pronounced as /s/ after the sounds
/f/;/p/; /k/; and /t/ (he laughs, he drops, he
kicks, he lets)
- “s” is pronounced as /Iz/ after the sounds
/z/; /dᴣ/; /s/; /ʃ/; /ʧ/ and /ks/ (loses, manages,
passes, pushes, watches, mixes)
- “s” is pronounced as /z/ after all other sounds
(robs, adds, digs, fills, dreams, is)
 d. Uses
The simple present tense is basically used to express:
- Permanent truths(summer follows spring)
- Present period (My sister works at UNILAK)
- Habitual actions (I get up at 7)
- Future reference ( the course begins at 5.30 next Monday
evening)
- Observations and declarations ( I hope so, I love you)
- Instructions (First you weigh the ingredients)
- Commentaries (Rayon Sports is the best football team in Rwanda)
e. Signal words: always, every …, never, normally, often, seldom,
sometimes, usually , if sentences type I (If I talk, …)
2. Present continuous/ progressive
a. Structure: Subject + simple present of “be”+ -
ing form of the (main) verb. E.g.: Jane is going to
school; They are going to school.
 b. Spelling
1. We add –ing to the base from ( wait- waiting)
2. If a verb ends in “e”, we usually omit the “e” and add –
ing (use – using).
3. A single vowel followed by a single consonant doubles
the final consonant in one-syllable verbs (sit- sitting).
4. We double the last consonant of two-syllable verbs
when the second syllable is stressed (begin-
beginning).
5. “-Ic” ending changes to “-ick”+ ing (picnic- picnicking).
6. “-ie” ending changes to ‘y’ + ing (lie – lying)
 c. Uses
We basically use the present progressive tense to express the following:
-Actions in progress at the moment of speaking (We are studying
English).
- Temporary situations/actions, not necessary in progress at the
moment of speaking (Rwagasore is studying management at UNILAK).
-Planned actions [+future adverbial reference](we are going to Kigali
next week. )
- Repeated actions with adverbs like always, forever, etc. (she is always
helping people).
d. Signal words: at the moment, just, just now, Listen!, Look!, now, right
now
 3. Simple past Tense
There are regular and irregular verbs.
a. Structure for regular verbs: subject + base form + d/ed (play-played;
like-liked).
b. Pronunciation:
- “ed” is generally pronounced as /d/ (arrived /əraivd/; married/mӕrid/).
- Verbs ending in the following sounds are pronounce/t/ in the past:
/k/;/s/; /ʧ/; /ʃ/; /f/;/p/;/ks/ (kicked; passed; watched; washed; laughed;
stopped; mixed).
- A few verbs are pronounced and spelt /d/ or /t/ (burned/burnt;
dreamed/ dreamt)
- Verbs ending in the sound /t/ or /d/ have their past ending
pronounced /id/ (added; shouted)
Note: for irregular verbs, study the list.
 c. Uses
We use it to express:
• events, situations or actions that happened in the
past and are now finished. Time reference is
important and should be mentioned or implied
(Sam phoned me twenty minutes ago).
• To describe past habits ( I smoked 40 cigarettes a
day till I gave up).
d. Signal words: yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the
other day, last Friday, if sentence type II (If I talked, …)
 4. Past continuous/progressive tense
a. Structure: subject + simple past of “be” + ing form of the verb ( I was
studying; We were working in the garden)
b. Uses: we use it to express
- Temporary actions in progress in the past (I was living abroad in 1987)
- Actions which were in progress when something else happened (Just
as I was leaving, the phone rang)
- Actions in progress at the same time in the past (While I was reading,
Joan was playing the piano)
- Repeated actions (When he worked as a teacher, he was always
making mistakes)
- Polite inquiries (I was wondering if you could give me a lift).
C. Signal words: when, while, as long as
 5. Present perfect simple
a. Structure: Subject + simple present of have + past participle (I have
worked there; She has worked here; They have worked together).
b. uses: We use it to express
- Actions beginning in the past and continuing up to the present
moment (I have lived here since 1980).
- Actions which happened at an unspecified time in the past (Have
you passed your driving test?)
- Past actions that are still news or whose results/consequences are
present.
- Repeated or habitual actions (I have often met her)
c. Signal words: already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up
to now, since, for
6. Present perfect continuous/progressive

a. Structure: Subject + simple present of ‘have’ + been

+ ing form of the verb (I have been typing all day).
b. Uses: We use it with verbs that naturally suggest
continuity such as learn, lie, live, rain, sit, sleep, stand,
study, wait , work, etc. in place of the present perfect
simple to emphasize that something has been in
progress throughout a period of time. (I have been
waiting here for two hours).
c. Signal words: all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how
long?, the whole week, etc.
 7. Past perfect simple Tense
a. Structure: subject + simple past of ‘have’ +
past participle of the verb ( when I arrived, Ann
had left).
b. use: we use it when we have two or more
past references to express the action/event that
happened first in order to avoid ambiguity.( E.g.:
First the patient died. Then the doctor arrived.
The patient had died when the doctor arrived. )
8. Past perfect progressive/continuous

a. Structure: Subject + simple past of “have”+

been + ing form of the verb (She was very
tired because she had been typing all day.
b. Use: We use it instead of past perfect simple
to emphasize the continuity of the action or
situation (I had been waiting for two hours
before he arrived.)
 9. Simple future tense
a. Structure: Subject + will/shall + simple form of the verb (e.g.: It will rain
tomorrow; I don’t know if I shall see you next week).
b. Uses of “will” and “shall”: We often use them to make/express:-
predictions (It will rain tomorrow); Intentions/promises (I will buy you a
bicycle for your birthday); Requests/invitations (will you hold the door
open for me, please?); Offers (shall I get your coat for you?); Suggestions
(shall we go for a swim tomorrow?); Threats (Just wait! You’ll regret
this!); Decisions (I’ll stop and ask the way); events that have been
arranged (the wedding will take place at Lemigo Hotel); hopes and
expectations (I hope she’ll get the job she has applied for).

c. Signal words: in a year, next …, tomorrow

If-Sentences Type I (If you ask her, she will help you.)
assumption: I think, probably, we might …, perhaps
 10. Simple future with “going to”
a. Structure: Subject + simple present of ‘be’ + going to + simple
form (look out! She is going to faint).
b. Uses: we use it to express
- Predictions especially when we can see that something is about
to happen (Angus and Margaret are going to be married in May).
- Intentions (informal style) (I am going to practice the piano for
two hours this evening).
- Planned actions (we are going to spend the winter in Australia)
- We use ‘Will’ when we decide to do something at the moment
of speaking (we’re lost. I’ll stop and ask the way).
c. Signal words: in one year, next week, tomorrow .etc.
11. Other ways of expressing the future
a. “To be to” is used for formal arrangements/duties
(class representatives are to meet
tomorrow);formal appointments/ instructions
(three tablets are to be taken twice a day);
prohibitions (you’re not to tell him anything about
our plans).
b. “To be about to” is used to refer to immediate
future (Look! The race is just about to start).
c. “To be due to” is used to refer to timetables (the
plane is due to land at 2:15).
 12. The future progressive
a. Structure: subject + will + be + ing form of the
verb (I will be working).
b. Uses: we use it to emphasize actions that will be
in progress in the future especially when we
imagine ourselves doing something; to sound
more polite(When will you be seeing Mr. Black?;
to express planned actions (we’ll be spending
winter in Australia).
c. Signal words: in one year, next week, tomorrow,
etc.
 13. The future perfect simple
a. Structure: Subject + will + have + past
participle (Phil will not have retired till the
year 2030).
b. Use: it is used with verbs that point to
completion like to complete, to finish, to
retire, etc. to show that an action will already
be completed by a certain time in the future
(they will have retired by the year 2035.
c. Signal words: by Monday, in a week, etc.
14. The future perfect progressive
a. Structure: Subject + will + have + been + -ing form of
the verb (by this time next week, I will have been
working on this book for a year).
b. Use: it is used with verbs that naturally suggest
continuity like learn, study, lie, live, rain, sit, wait, work,
etc. to say that what is in progress now will stay/be in
progress by a certain time in the future (By the year
2028, she will have been studying here for three years).
c. Signal words: for …, the last couple of hours, all day
long, etc.
 6. Adverbs
Adverbs are words which add the meaning to the
verbs. They modify also other adverbs.
A. ADVERBS OF MANNER
e.g: bad----------badly; quick -------quickly;
eager-------- eagerly; heavy-------heavily;
lazy---------lazily; easy-------- easily;
When we form an adverb of manner, we add –ly
or –ily to the form of an adjective as shown
above.
 Notes
1. Some words can be used as adjectives or adverbs without adding –
ly/-ily: e.g: It was a fast train; The train went fast. Other examples are:
better, early, hard, high, wide, near, last, late.......
2. We can have two forms and different meanings:
e.g: He played hard; He hardly played at all - She arrived last; She lastly
informed me.
3. All words ending in –LY are not adverbs. Some are adjectives.
e.g: Meg is a friendly girl; It was a lovely day; He has a cowardly boy
Others are like lonely, manly, silly, etc.
4. There is a small number of adverbs which have a totally different
meaning from adjectives they are derived from: Lately, hardly, awfully,
barely, shortly, scarcely, terribly. (Check their meaning(s) in the
dictionary).
5. We can form some adverbs of manner from
certain verbs: E.g: - to joke – jokingly; to surprise
- surprisingly, etc.

ACTIVITY: Find ten adverbs that can collocate

with each of the following verbs: to swagger; to
talk; to linger
 B. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

e.g: a) we always study English; the children

usually eat bread; I often pay him a visit.
The following are indefinite adverbs of
frequency and answer the questions: “How
often……………?” Or “How many times…?”
Level of frequency

100% Always
Normally
Usually
Often
Sometimes
50% Occasionally
Seldom
Rarely/scarcely

Hardly ever
0% Never
 PLACE OF ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY IN A
SENTENCE
- These adverbs are normally placed between the subject and the verb.
Eg: They sometimes come here; The thieves seldom / rarely / hardly
joke; He frequently doesn’t get home till 10.
- But in sentence with verb “to be or modal verbs”, frequency adverbs
are placed after the verb.
Eg:- he is often here; the students are usually happy when teachers are
absent.
- There are also definite adverbs of frequency: once a day, twice a
week, every day, every year, three times a semester,…. These normally
come at the end of the sentence.
Eg. I go to church four times a month; My girlfriend calls me twice a day.
 Position of adverbs of frequency in
affirmatives and questions
• 1. Adverbs of frequency generally answer the question how often? The
most common are above mentioned in the box.
• 2. Adverbs of frequency have three basic positions in affirmative sentences:

• After be when it is the only verb in a sentence.

• E.g. she is always late to class.
• After the first auxiliary when there is more than one.
• e.g.: she would always have been late to class.
• Before the main verb when there is only one verb.
• e.g.: they never go shopping.
• 3. In questions, the adverb of frequency comes after the subject:
• E.g. Are you always late to class?
 POSITION OF ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY IN
NEGATIVE STATEMENT
1. The following adverbs usually come after not: always, generally, normally,
often, regularly, and usually.
• e.g.: Public transport isn’t always reliable.
2. We use sometimes and frequently before not or before isn’t, doesn’t, don’t,
didn’t, etc.
• e.g.:- Debbie is sometimes not responsible for what she does.
• He is frequently not at home.
• She sometimes isn’t reliable.
• He frequently doesn’t get home till 10:00.
3. We can’t use not to form negatives with ever.
• e.g.: He hardly ever writes. (Not he doesn’t hardly ever write).
4. Generally, normally, often and usually can come after the subject for
emphasis.
• e.g.: We normally don’t worry if the children are late from school.
 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY AT THE
BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE
• For special emphasis, we can begin a
sentence with: frequently, generally, normally,
often, very often, sometimes, and usually.
• e.g.: - We normally don’t worry if the children
are late from school.
• Normally, we don’t worry if the children are
late from school.(see exercises)
 C. ADVERBS OF TIME

- These are adverbs that tell us when something

happens: ‘points of time’ tell us “exactly when” ( today,
yesterday, tonight, tomorrow night, soon, recently, this
year, now, still, already, then, just, at last, lately …. ) Eg:- I
haven’t finished yet. (Yet is mainly used in questions and
negatives); They will visit me next week.
- These adverbs can refer to past, present and future.
• Now: I feel terrible this morning.
• Earlier: I spoke to him this morning.
• Later on today: I will speak to him this morning.
 D. ADVERBS OF DEGREE

Quite, fairly and rather are common adverbs of degree.

-Quite means “less than good” Eg: The film was quite
good. (less than)
Fairly goes with good adjectives and adverbs (good, nice,
well, etc). it is generally “less complimentary ” than quite.
Eg: The film was quite good (complimentary) _not
enough good.
The film was fairly good (less complimentary)_ not
enough good
 Adverbs of degree (cont’d)
-Rather is stronger than quite and fairly and suggest “inclined
to be”. It often goes with bad adjectives (bad, poor, awful and
unpleasant). When it goes with good adjectives (good, nice,
tasty, etc.), it often means “surprisingly”.
Eg: This ice-cream is rather good. (perhaps he didn’t expect it
to be good)
There are other adverbs of degree: much, any, far, a lot
Eg: It is a lot bigger. Is it any better?
• This book by Chinua Achebe is far the best.
• London is far bigger than Kigali.
• I don’t much like fish.
 Notes
• In the interest of time, we can’t exhaust all adverbs;
the students are encouraged to do their own research
on adverbs and find more than we have covered.
For example:
• Find more on intensifier adverbs (very, too, very much;
adverbs in place of very: extremely happy, fast asleep,
terribly expensive, highly respected, badly needed,
deeply hurt, painfully embarrassed, bitterly cold…)
• Find more on adverbs of focus (even, only, just, simply,
too, also, as well)
 EXERCISES:
Research on suitable adverbs in place of VERY in
the following:
• The traffic is very slow today.(so, too)
• I was very bored by the play. (really)
• I am very confused by the new regulations.
(so)
• Your success has been very deserved. (well)
• A well is very needed in that village.(badly)
 Quantifiers
Fill in the empty spaces using these words below: Any; enough; few;
how many; how much; little; no; some; too; too much.
1. I am sorry, Madam. There are ------------------- rooms free at the back.
2. I am sure your room will be quiet ----------------, Madam.
3. I am afraid you’ve got-------------- baggage, Sir. The allowance is 25
kilos, and you have 45.
4. How about 9:30? Is that ----------------early?
5. A: A ---------------- more cabbage, Sir? And a ---------------- peas?
B: No, I‘ve got vegetables. Thanks. But could I have --------------
mustard?
6. Have you got ------------------- money?
7. A: Excuse me. -------------------------- is that?
B: £ 25
8. Could I speak to the manager for a ------------------- minutes?
9. You’ve given me ---------------- money. It costs £ 3.50, not £ 4.50.
10. She is not old---------------------- to drive.
11. There is something wrong with the car – it’s using ----------oil.
12. A: ---------------------- is it?
B: £65
13. A: That’s --------- expensive. I‘ll give you £ 45

14. Sorry- we haven’t got ---------------- rooms left.

15. --------------------cigarettes do you smoke a day?
16. Could you cut a ------------------ more off the top?
17. I am afraid there are -------------------- trains to Flaxborough on Sundays.
18. Give me ------------------- more tea, will you?
 Notes on quantifiers
• A. Basic uses of much, many and a lot of:
• 1. Much (+ uncountable, always singular) and Many (+
plural countable):
• - in negative statements: we haven’t got much time. There
aren’t many pandas in china.
• - in questions: is there much milk? Have you had many
inquiries?
• 2. A lot of or the informal Lots of (+ plural countable or
singular uncountable):
• - in the affirmative: I’ve got a lot of time/ lots of time. I’ve
got a lot of/lots of books.
 Other common uses
• B. Other common uses of much, many and a lot of
• 1. We can also use much and many in the affirmative:
• - In formal statements: Much money is spent on
defense. Many teachers retire early.
• - With as-------as: Take as much as you like.
• - In time reference: I’ve lived here for many years.
• 2. We can use not much and not many to begin a
sentence: Not many know about this.
• 3. We can use not a lot of for emphasis: I haven’t got a
lot of time for people like him.
 Few; a few; little; a little
• 1. We use few and a few with plural countable nouns: few
friends, a few friends. We use little and a little with
uncountable nouns: little time, a little time.
• 2. Few and little are negative (= hardly any): I’ve got few
friends. I’ve got little time (hardly any).
• We sometimes use very with few and little: I’ve got very few
friends. I’ve got very little time. (Hardly any at all)
• 3. A few and a little are positive (= some) I’ve got a few
friends. I’ve got a little time
• We sometimes use only with a few and a little: I’ve got only a
few friends. (Not many). I’ve got only a little time (Not much)
 Fewer and less
• 1. Fewer is the comparative form of few (few, fewer, the
fewest)
• Less is the comparative form of little (little, less, the least)
• 2. Fewer goes with plural countable nouns: Fewer videos
have been imported this year than last year.
• 3. Less goes with uncountable nouns: less oil has been
produced this year than last year.
• 4. Informally, we often use less with countable nouns.
Some native speakers think that it is wrong: Less people are
traveling abroad this year. People are buying less
newspapers than they used to.
 Exercise
Put in a little, a lot of, a few, few, fewer, many or much. Discuss/ comment on the text.
Don’t call us, we’ll call you
Two years ago I moved to a new neighborhood. There seem to be very (1) ---------
------ people in this area who are without telephones, so I expected to get a new
phone quickly. I applied for one as soon as I moved into my new house. ‘We aren’t
supplying (2) -------- new phones in your area,’ an engineer told me. (3) -------------
people want new phones at the moment and the company is employing (4)
-------------- engineers than last year so as to save money. A new phone won’t cost
you (5) --------------- money but it will take (6) ----------- time. We can’t do anything
for you before December.’ You need (7) ------------ patience if you’re waiting for a
new phone and you need (8) ---------- friends whose phones you can use as well.
Fortunately, I had both. December came and went, but there was no sign of phone.
I went to the company’s local office to protest. ‘They told me I’d have a phone by
December,’ I protested. ‘Which year?’ the assistant asked.
 1.4 CONNECTING / JOINING WORDS

A . Conjunctions: Definition and types

• Definition
A conjunction is a word which connects two words or clauses or
sentences and shows the relation between them. They are used to
avoid making the text seem like bullet points and to make the text
flow smoothly or be coherent.
E.g.: Jai saw a dog on the road. He decided to adopt the dog. Jai
brought the dog home.
Jai saw a dog on the road and decided to adopt the dog, so he
brought the dog home.
Here ‘and’ and ‘so’ are conjunctions which are used to join the
sentences and show the relation between them. There are three
main categories of conjunctions that are explained below:
 B. Types of conjunctions

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
• These conjunctions are used to link or join two
words or phrases that are equally important
and complete in terms of grammar when
compared with each other. That is to say, the
sentences or words do not depend on
anything to give themselves meaning.
• There are seven main coordinating
conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, Soon
As you can see, these conjunctions are arranged in this way
to provide the mnemonic acronym of FANBOYS so that it is
easier to remember them. These conjunctions are always
placed between the two clauses or words that they are
joining. The following are some examples of the coordinating
conjunctions:
Chris does not want tea. Chris does not want coffee. - Chris
does not want tea or coffee.
•Here, we see how ‘or’ was used to combine the two words
and make a cohesive sentence using them. Also, notice how
the ‘or’ is between the two words.
I scored 60% in the exams this year. Anita scored 7% more
than me this year. - I scored 60% in the exams but Anita
scored 7% more than me this year.
•Here we see that ‘but’ was used in the middle to combine
and show the relation between the two sentences that were
both equally important and cohesive by themselves.
 2. Subordinating Conjunctions

• These conjunctions are used to join an independent and

complete clause with a dependent clause that relies on
the main clause for meaning and relevance. The
dependent clause cannot exist on its own as a sentence
and often does not make sense without the main clause.
• The subordinating conjunction always comes before the
dependent clause but the dependent clause itself can be
placed either ahead of or following the independent
clause.
• Since they had misbehaved, the boys were given one
week suspensions from school.
• Here, we see the dependent clause is ‘they had
misbehaved’ which is not a valid sentence by itself.
The independent or main clause is ‘the boys were
given one week suspensions from school’.
They are joined by the subordinating conjunction
‘since’.
He was fond of playing basketball because it was his
father’s favorite game.
In this sentence, because is the subordinating
conjunction as it introduces the dependent clause ‘it
was his father’s favorite game’
The main clause in this sentence is ‘he was fond of
playing basketball’ as it is the sentence which can be
said independently and still be grammatically correct.
Other subordinating conjunctions are - Although,
As, Before, Once, Though, Until, Whether, etc.
 3. Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions are simply pairs of

conjunctions used in a sentence to join
different words or groups of words in a
sentence together. Correlative Conjunctions
are generally not used to link sentences
themselves, instead they link two or more
words of equal importance within the
sentence itself. Some of the more commonly
used correlative conjunctions are :
Both the shoes and the dress were completely overpriced.
•This is an example of using the correlative conjunctions
‘both/and’ in a sentence. As you can see in this sentence, the
‘shoes’ and the ‘dress’ were equally important elements that
needed to be given the same importance.
They should either change their strategy or just forfeit the
game.
•The ‘either/or’ conjunctions are used to suggest a choice
between two options. Here the choice being suggested is
between - ‘change their strategy’ or ‘forfeit the game’.
Just as she loves hiking so she enjoys travelling as well.
•The correlative conjunctions ‘just as/so’ are used to link two
phrases that have a similar theme or are referring to a similar
thing together. This conjunction is used to show the
correspondence between two phrases or words.
He neither helps around the house nor does he look for a job.
•‘Neither/nor’ are conjunctions that are used to deny or
negate words and phrases. In the case of ‘neither’, it gives
two options that are both negated. ‘Nor’ is the negative form of
‘or’.
Not only does he play the lead guitar but he is also the band’s
songwriter.
•The correlative conjunctions ‘not only/but’ are used to show
an additional and important element in the sentence that is
used to indicate excess when combined with the first element.
For instance, in this sentence the fact that he is a guitarist and
a song writer are equally important but when shown together,
they indicate an excess of talent in the person.
It doesn’t matter whether the roses are fresh or if they are
drooping, just buy them.
‘Whether/or’ is used as a conjunction to show two different
options in the sentence. The conjunction can be used both in a
manner of negation and confirmation.
 C. Uses of conjunctions

• We use different conjunctions to show many different things

notably:
a. Addition: It is expressed by the conjunction “and” as in “He
washed the car and polished it.”
b. Continuation: This is expressed by the conjunction “and
then” as in “He washed the car and then polished it.”
c. Contrast which is expressed by the following conjunctions:
but, yet, although, considering that, though, even though,
even if, much as, while, whereas, etc. Example: She sold her
house but she can’t help regretting it.
d. Choice: this is introduced with conjunctions
like or, either------ or, neither, neither ---- nor,
etc. Example: you can park your car here or
there.

e. Result: this is expressed by conjunctions like

so, thus, etc. He couldn’t find his pen, so he
used a pencil.
f. Reason which is shown with conjunctions like
because, as, seeing that, since, for, etc. We
rarely stay in hotels, for we can’t afford it.
g. Conditional which is introduced with
conjunctions like as if, assuming that, even if, on the
condition that, provided that, providing that, as long
as, suppose, supposing, etc. Example: Assuming that
it’s fine tomorrow, we’ll go for a swim.
 4. Exercises

• Give a physical description of your place of

residence (apartment, dormitory room, etc.)
• Describe the characteristics and activities of a
successful student.
• Give your reader directions for making a
particular dish.
Note: Use some of the conjunctions seen above.
 COMMON PREPOSITIONS, ADVERB PARTICLES AND PHRASAL VERBS

• Prepositions and adverb particles

• There are many small words in English such as up, down, by,
at, in, for, etc.; which we call prepositions. In fact, we use
these as prepositions or adverb particles. Understanding the
difference between them will help to understand phrasal
verbs.
• A preposition must have an object (a noun or pronoun), so it
is always related to a noun: across the road, over the wall, up
the hill, down the mountain.
• An adverb particle does not need an object, so it is more
closely related to a verb: walk across, drive over, come up,
climb down.
 PREPOSITIONS, ADVERB PARTICLES AND PHRASAL VERBS (cont’d)

• We can use these words either as prepositions or adverb particles:

about, above, across, after, along, before, behind, below, beneath,
between, beyond, by, down, in ,inside, near, off, on, opposite, outside,
over, past, round, through, under, underneath, up, without. E.g. we
drove round the city (round has a noun object, so it is a preposition);
we drove round (round has no object, so it is an adverb particle).
• We use some small words only as prepositions, so they always have a
noun or pronoun object: against, among, at, beside, during, except,
for, from, into, of, onto, on top of, out of, since, till/until, to, toward(s),
upon, with. E.g. Sit beside me.
• We use other small words only as adverb particles, so they do not
have an object: away, back, backward(s) downward(s), forward(s), on
top, out, upward(s). E.g. Don’t go near the fire. Stay away.
 Prepositions and conjunctions

• There are a few words that we can use either

as prepositions or conjunctions: after, as,
before, since, and till/ until.
• When we use them as prepositions, we have a
noun or pronoun object after them: E.g. Let’s
have our meeting after lunch.
• When we use them as conjunctions, we have a
clause after them: E.g. Let’s have our meeting
after we have had lunch.
 Exercises:

1. Suppose you are answering the question ‘what did you

do?’ Supply suitable noun objects where possible.
1. We waited at ----------------------
2. We went to ------------------------
3. We jumped back ------------------
4. We climbed out --------------------
5. We drove away ---------------------
6. We ran into -------------------------
7. We ran out of ------------------------
8. We went upwards -------------------
2. Complete these sentences with a) a noun object
b) a clause.
• We can’t work before -------------------------------------
• I’ll meet you after ------------------------------------------
• I’ll wait here till ---------------------------------------------
• I’ve been staying at this hotel since -------------------
Prepositions of movement, position and time.

• We use to/ from and into/ out of/onto to show

direction with movement: E.g. she has gone to Paris.
She has just come from Paris. I went into the shop. I
came out of the shop. I threw my keys onto the table.
• We use at, in, on to show position after movement. At
may be used to mean a (meeting) point; in to mean
inside and on to mean on a surface. E.g. I‘ll meet you at
the airport. I’ll meet you in the airport. Now, they are on
the summit.
 At
We use at mainly with:
• Public places/buildings: at the airport, the bus
stop, the Grand Hotel, the butcher’s.
• Addresses: at his sister’s, 24 Cedar Avenue.
• Nouns with zero article: at home, church,
college, school, university.
• Events: at a concert, a dance, a dinner, a
funeral, a meeting, a party, a wedding. E.g. He
was at a party.
 In
We use in mainly with:
• Large areas: in Europe, Asia, the Pacific.
• Towns/parts of towns: in Paris, in
Nyamirambo.
• Outside areas: in the garden, the park.
• Rooms: in the bathroom, in the bedroom.
• Nouns with zero article: in bed, chapel,
church, hospital, prison. E.g. He is in Texas.
 At, on & in expressing time
• We use at for: exact time (at 10 o’clock), meal times (at
lunch), points of time (at night), festivals (at Christmas),
age ( at the age of 14), + time ( at this/that time).
• We use on for: days of the week (on Monday), dates (on
June1st) particular occasions (on that day), anniversaries
(on your birthday), festivals (on New Year’s Day)

• We use in for: parts of the day (in the evening), months

(in May), years (in 2050), seasons (in spring), centuries
(in the 20th century), periods (in Ramadan).
 Exercises:

1. Supply at or in

1) He‘s gone to the station. He’s probably --------- the

station.
2) She’s gone to school. She’s probably ------- school now
3) He flew from London. He’s probably --------- Paris
now.
4) She’s gone into the garden. He’s ------------ the garden
now.
5) She’s gone to bed. She’s --------- bed now.
 Use at or in
6) He’s gone to a dinner party. He’s probably ----- the
dinner now.
7) She’s gone to the wedding. She’s probably --- the
wedding now.
8) He’s gone to the kitchen. He’s probably ------- the
kitchen now.
9) They’ve come out of the desert. They’re probably ---
the jungle.
10) They’ve gone to New York. They’re probably ---
New York now.
 Use at or in
11) She’s gone to the waiting room. She’s probably --- the waiting
room.
12) He’s been sent to prison. He’s probably ---- prison now.
13) She’s gone to the doctor’s. She‘s probably----- the doctor’s now.
14) He’s gone home. He’s probably ------ home now.
15) She’s gone to the old town. She‘s probably ------ the old town
now.
16) They’ve sailed to the Pacific. They’re probably --- the Pacific
now
17) We live ----- 14 Woodland Avenue.
18) She was taken to the hospital. She’s -------- hospital now.
 [Link] at , in or on

1. I’ll meet you ----- 10.30 ------ Monday,

June 14.
2. We’re taking our holiday --------- July
3. I always finish work early ----- Fridays.
4. Who knows what the world will be
like ----- the year 2030
5. You don’t want anything to go wrong
---- your wedding
 Use AT, IN or ON
6. ------ the 19th century children died before they
were a year old.

7. We got up ----- dawn and reached the summit

------- noon.
8. -------- the age of 14 I realized I would never
become a brain surgeon.
9. The birds don’t find much to eat in our garden
----- winter.
10. What will you be doing ------ the holidays;
11. What will you be doing -------- New Year’s Day?
 Use AT, IN or ON
12. The year was 1986. --------- that
time I was working as a waiter.
13. We try to get away -----
Christmas time.
14. I’ll see you ------- ten day’s time.
15. They prepared a surprise for me
at the office ----- my birthday.
 Phrasal verbs

Introduction to phrasal verbs

• We often combine verbs with prepositions and adverb
particles to form phrasal verbs. These verbs can have
non-idiomatic or idiomatic meanings and we use them a
lot. So, for example if someone knocks at the door, we
would probably say ‘come in!’ rather than ‘enter’. We
would say ‘take off your jacket’, rather than ‘remove it’,
and so on. We can define four types of phrasal verbs
according to form. As you learn new verbs, get used to
recognizing them as one of these four types so that you
learn how to use them.
 Note

• Transitive (= followed by a noun or pronoun object)

• Intransitive (= not followed by a noun or pronoun object)
1. Type 1: verb + preposition (transitive): Listen to this
record, listen to it. Listen!
2. Type 2: verb + adverb particle (transitive): Take off your
hat. Take your hat off. Take it off.
3. Type 3: verb + adverb particle (intransitive): hurry up! Sit
down!
4. Type 4: verb + adverb particle + preposition (transitive):
We’ve run out of matches.
 Exercises: Supply the missing prepositions

1. I don’t agree ----------- your proposal

2. Mr. Potter suffers ------- asthma
3. Please don’t insist ------ paying the bill
4. I wouldn’t think --------- borrowing
money
5. These two pictures differ ------- each
other
6. Choose ----------- the two
7. Where did you read
------------ it
8. I’m depending ---------- you;
9. We can only guess
------------ the truth
10. Please wait --------- me.
11. knock ------- the door
12. Ask --------- the menu
13. I don’t agree -------- you.
14. How do you know --------- this?
15. Does this jacket belong ----------- you
16. Let’s begin ------- tomato soup.
17. Can you look ----------- the children
for tonight?
18. I couldn’t wish ---------- a nicer office.
19. We failed -------- our attempt to win
the race.
20. You can’t reason ---------- him.
21. This pie tastes --------- onion.
22. I don’t believe -------- fairies.
23. I succeeded --------- starting the
engine
24. The police are looking -------- the
robbers.
Supply the missing prepositions:

1. I’ve arranged an excursion ------- you.

2. He accused me ------- lying
3. You can’t hide the truth -------- me
4. Would you kindly explain this -------- me
5. Invest some money ----- this company.
6. I can’t advise you -------- your private life.
7. Insure your house -------- storm damage
8. Translate this report -------- Spanish for me.
9. I’ll reserve a seat --------- you.
10. You remind me --------- my sister.
11. Don’t associate me ------- them
12. Can you forgive me -------- what I
did?
13. They robbed me ------- my wallet.
14. Don’t repeat this ------- anyone
15. You can’t blame me -------- this.
16. He stole money -------- the firm.
 Thought expression

1. A sentence: definition
• A sentence is a set of words that is complete
in itself, typically containing a subject and
predicate, conveying a statement, question,
exclamation, or command, and consisting of
a main clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses.
 2. Forms and Types of sentences
• There are four forms of English sentence,
classified by their purpose:
• declarative sentence (statement)
• interrogative sentence (question)
• imperative sentence (command)
• exclamative sentence (exclamation)
(form = structure / function = job)

form function example sentence final punctuation

(clause)

1 declarative statement: It tells John likes Mary. .

us something

2 interrogative question: It asks us Does Mary like ?

something John?

3 imperative command: It tells us Stop! ! or .

to do something Close the door.

4 exclamative exclamation: It What a funny story !

expresses surprise he told us!
 3. Sentence structure and types
• There are four types of sentences: simple,
compound, complex, and compound-
complex. Each sentence is defined by the use
of independent and dependent clauses,
conjunctions, and subordinators.
The following statements are true about sentences in
English:
A new sentence begins with a capital letter.
He obtained his degree.
A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question
mark, or an exclamation point).
He obtained his degree.
A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.
Smith he obtained his degree.
A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.
He obtained his degree.
A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.
He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).
A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone.
This is also called an independent clause.
He obtained his degree.
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb,
and it may also have an object and modifiers.
However, it contains only one independent
clause.
Here are a few examples:
She wrote.
She completed her literature review.
He organized his sources by theme.
They studied APA rules for many hours.
A compound sentence contains at least
two independent clauses. These two independent
clauses can be combined with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Here are a few examples:
She completed her literature review, and she created
her reference list.
He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated
his reference list.
They studied APA rules for many hours, but they
realized there was still much to learn.
Using some compound sentences in writing allows for
more sentence variety.
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the
sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the
independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause.
If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is
not a comma separating the two clauses.
Here are a few examples:
Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to
follow.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.
They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an
independent clause.
Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence
contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she finished her methods course last semester.

Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them

chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.

With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many
hours, and they decided that writing in APA made sense because it was
clear, concise, and objective.

Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more

sentence variety.

Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that

the reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.
EXERCISES : Combine each pair of sentences using a comma and the word in
brackets.

1. She did not go to the park. It

was too late in the evening. (for)
2. They arrived early at the show.
They had great seats. (and)
3. My family has never been to
Washington. We have seen
Boston. (but)
4. I really like chocolate cake. I am
too full for dessert. (but)
5. We could start the movie now.
We could wait for Julia to arrive.
(or)
6. I am allergic to cats. I love to pet
them. (yet)
Combine each pair of sentences using a comma and
the word in brackets (cont’ed).

7. Mark finished his homework. We

can go play outside. (so)
8. You cannot go outside. It started
to rain. (for)
9. They moved their toys to the
side. They had room for the
race track. (and)
10. She does not play the piano.
She does play the flute. (but)
11. The cake is dry. The caramel
sauce is good. (but)
12. We can have pizza for supper.
We can have spaghetti. (or)
Complex sentences: exercises (choose the correct expressions
from the brackets to complete the sentence)

1. _______as you have expressed your desire to get the job, we will do anything to help.
(when, inasmuch, if, however)
2. He spoke _____ he were the president of the country. (since, even though, when, as
though)
3. Were you the one_____wallet had been stolen? (before, whom, whose, after)
4. Finish your homework_____ ending the night? (before, as soon as, when, until)
5. _____it was raining, Kate left for work on foot. (since, even though, when, but)
6. _____the train had left the platform, we reached the station. (now, after, that, soon)
7. The laptop will run smoothly_____you take good care of it. (unless, as long as,
though, than)
8. Everyone takes Noor for a more responsible person_____he is a parent. (now, until,
now that, that)
9. My wife loves meat,_____I am a pure vegetarian. (whether, whereas, where,
provided)
10. I fear to spare him this time_____he should continue doing it. (since, lest, as soon as,
while)
 Explanations

1. "Inasmuch as" is used interchangeably with "because" and 11. The conjunction “yet” is used to put contrasting
"since" as far as the meaning goes. The two clauses are statements side by side.
parallel in meaning and the "as" after the blank leaves no
option but to use "Inasmuch" here
12. “In spite” is always followed by the preposition “of”
while it is used in mandatory situations.
2. “Were” or the Past Perfect tense is used after “As if” and
“As though” in a sentence that states unrealistic 13. Conjunction “who” here indicates the person about
expectations. whom the statements on either side refer to.
3. “Whose” takes the place of the possessive pronouns in 14. While the conjunction “until” is used, time becomes the
Interrogative Sentences focus. Sentences containing “until” would refer to
4. “Before”: Making sense of the command would tell that tasks that will happen before or after one another.
people usually think of or plan on doing something before
going to bed or “ending the night”
15. “As if” and “As though” are always followed by “were” or
Past Perfect tense and it expresses unrealistic
5. It is not normal to leave on foot while it is raining so one of
the contrasting Subordinate Conjunctions “Even though” is imaginations.
to be used here. 16. “Since” is used as the conjunction to connect two clauses
6. The clause following the conjunction, “After” would be in that depend on one another.
the Past Perfect tense while the other clause is in the Simple 17. “So that” is used before the clause that states the reason
Past tense. and it always follows the conjunction.
7. Here is a cause-and-effect relationship with time between
18. “Provided” can be used interchangeably with “if” in
the two clauses so “As long as” would be the best fit.
conditional situations.
8. “Now that” entails the strong possibility of something else
to happen because one thing has. 19. “If only” puts the necessary emphasis on “if” as it is
9. Two contrasting clauses are linked with the conjunction, easily replaceable by it in similar conditional situations.
“Whereas” in conversation. 20. “Though” and “although” are used interchangeably in
10. The clause following the conjunction, “Lest” almost always identical situations where they join contracting
has “should” in it. clauses.
 Acknowledgements

Thank you for your kind attention