Properties of

materials
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 What Is an Atom?
Everything around you — your pencil, your clothes, even YOU — is
made of tiny building blocks called atoms.
An atom is so small that we can’t see it without a powerful microscope,
but it has three main parts:

Part Where is it? Charge One Fact

In the nucleus (middle Number of protons =
Proton Positive (+)
of the atom) Atomic Number
Neutrons + protons =
Neutron In the nucleus No charge (0)
Mass Number
Same number as
Outside the nucleus in
Electron Negative (−) protons in a neutral
shells
atom
Electron Shells (Energy Levels)
Electrons don't fly randomly — they sit in shells (energy
levels) around the nucleus.
Think of shells like seats in a classroom:
• 1st shell = 2 electrons
• 2nd shell = up to 8 electrons
• 3rd shell = up to 8 electrons
Why Don’t Atoms Fly Apart?
Protons are positive and electrons are negative.
These opposite charges attract (like
magnets!), and that’s why the electrons stay
close to the nucleus. This is called an
electrostatic force.
History Corner: The Atom Models
• J.J. Thomson: Discovered the electron
• Ernest Rutherford: Discovered the nucleus
• Niels Bohr: Discovered electron shells! → This is the
model we still use today.
Trends in groups within the
Periodic Table
What Is a "Group" in the Periodic Table?
The Periodic Table is a special chart that organizes all known
chemical elements. It’s like the alphabet of chemistry.
• Groups are the columns (up and down)
• Elements in the same group have similar properties and
similar atomic structures
• They also react in similar ways
Group 1 – The Alkali Metals ( VERY reactive!)
Group 1 contains:
🔹 Lithium (Li)
🔹 Sodium (Na)
🔹 Potassium (K)
🔬 What they have in common:
• They are soft metals
• They are very reactive, especially with water
• Each atom has 1 electron in its outer shell
Element Atomic No. Electron Structure Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)
Li 3 2,1 180 1342
Na 11 2,8,1 98 883
K 19 2,8,8,1 63 760

Trends in Group 1:
• Melting and boiling points get lower as you go
down the group
• Atoms get bigger
• Reactivity increases (Potassium reacts more violently
than lithium!)
Reacting with Water: An Exciting Reaction
When alkali metals react with water, they:
• Fizz or bubble
• Float and move around
• Sometimes catch fire!
Example:
Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Na + H₂O → NaOH + H₂
🔒 Safety First! These metals are stored in oil to prevent reactions
with air or water.

Videoss
Why Are They Similar?
Each element in Group 1 has one
electron in its outer shell. This is
why:
• They all react easily
• They form similar compounds
• They're placed in the same
group!
Group 7 – The Halogens (🌈 Colourful & Smelly)
Group 7 includes:
🟡 Fluorine (F)
🟢 Chlorine (Cl)
🟤 Bromine (Br)
(Purple iodine and grey astatine come next)
🧬 What they have in common:
• Non-metals
• Very reactive
• Each atom has 7 electrons in its outer shell
• They often form salts (e.g. sodium chloride = table
salt!)
 Electron Melting Point Boiling Point
Element Atomic No. State Colour
Structure (°C) (°C)
F 9 2,7 Gas Pale yellow -220 -188

Cl 17 2,8,7 Gas Yellow-green -101 -34

Br 35 Liquid Brown -7 +59

Trends in Group 7:
• Melting and boiling points increase
• Colours get darker
• Reactivity decreases (fluorine is the most reactive)
Group 8 (or 0) – The Noble Gases (🥱 VERY unreactive)
Group 8/0 contains:
🎈 Helium (He)
💡 Neon (Ne)
🛑 Argon (Ar)
These gases are special because:
• They are inert (don’t react)
• They have full outer electron shells
• They are used in balloons, lights, and lasers
Element Atomic No. Electron Structure Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)
He 2 2 -270 -269
Ne 10 2,8 -249 -246
Ar 18 2,8,8 -189 -186

Trends in Group 8:
• Melting and boiling points increase as you go down
• Atoms get bigger
• Still, do not react with anything
 2.3 Why Do Elements React to Form Compounds?

Why do atoms react?

Atoms want to have a full outer shell of electrons. When their outer
shell is full, they are stable and don’t need to react.
The noble gases (Group 8) already have full outer shells — that’s why
they don’t react with other elements.
All the other atoms react so they can fill their outer shells. To do this,
they:
• Lose or gain electrons (form ions and ionic bonds)
• Share electrons (form covalent bonds)
What is an ion?
An ion is an atom that has lost or gained electrons:
• If it loses electrons, it becomes positively charged (like
Na⁺).
• If it gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged (like
Cl⁻).
Atoms become ions to get a full outer shell and become more
stable.
Example: Sodium and Chlorine
Let’s look at how sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) react:
• Sodium has an electron structure of 2,8,1. It has 1 electron in its outer
shell. It loses that electron to get a full second shell (2,8). It becomes a
Na⁺ ion.
• Chlorine has an electron structure of 2,8,7. It needs 1 more electron to
complete its outer shell. It gains that electron and becomes a Cl⁻ ion.
These opposite charges attract each other — this is called an ionic bond,
and together they form sodium chloride (NaCl) — table salt!
Ionic Bonding Summary
• A metal (like sodium) loses electrons → becomes a positive ion.
• A non-metal (like chlorine) gains electrons → becomes a negative ion.
• Positive and negative ions attract, forming ionic compounds.
What is a covalent bond?
Instead of giving away or taking electrons, some atoms share electrons. This
is called a covalent bond.
Covalent bonds happen between non-metal atoms.
Example: Water (H₂O)
• Each hydrogen atom needs 1 electron.
• Oxygen needs 2 more electrons.
• They share electrons to get full outer shells. This makes a molecule of
water.
 What is a molecule?
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together by
covalent bonds. Examples:
• Water (H₂O)
• Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
• Oxygen gas (O₂)

Writing Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula tells you which atoms are in a
compound and how many of each.
• Ionic compounds: NaCl, MgCl₂
• Covalent compounds: H₂O, CO₂, CH₄
Why are some elements more reactive than others?
• In Group 1 (like lithium, sodium, potassium), the outer
electrons are further from the nucleus. They are easier to
lose, so these elements react quickly.
• In Group 7 (like fluorine, chlorine), the atoms want to gain
one electron. Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine
because its outer shell is closer to the nucleus and attracts
electrons more strongly.
Key Words:
• Atom – tiny building block of everything
• Ion – an atom that has gained or lost electrons
• Chemical bond – force holding atoms together
• Ionic bond – bond between a metal and a non-metal, with
opposite charges
• Covalent bond – bond where atoms share electrons
• Molecule – atoms joined by covalent bonds
• Stable – when an atom has a full outer shell
• Dot and cross diagram – shows how electrons are shared or
transferred in a bond
Bond Type Between How It Works Example
Electrons are
Ionic Metal + Non-metal NaCl, MgCl₂
transferred
Covalent Non-metal + Non-metal Electrons are shared H₂O, CO₂, NH₃
 2.4 Simple and Giant Structures

How do sodium and chlorine form sodium chloride?

• Sodium is a metal. It loses one electron to become a
Na⁺ ion.
• Chlorine is a non-metal. It gains one electron to
become a Cl⁻ ion.
• These oppositely charged ions attract each other and
form a strong ionic bond.
This makes sodium chloride (NaCl) — an ionic
compound with a giant lattice structure.
How is this different from oxygen molecules?
• Oxygen is a non-metal.
• Two oxygen atoms share electrons to fill their outer
shells.
• This is called a covalent bond, and it forms an
oxygen molecule (O₂).
NaCl is a giant ionic lattice,
O₂ is a small covalent molecule.
Giant Structures in Ionic Compounds
In sodium chloride:
• Each Na⁺ ion is surrounded by six Cl⁻ ions.
• Each Cl⁻ ion is also surrounded by six Na⁺ ions.
• These ions form a regular 3D pattern called a lattice.
➡ This giant lattice gives NaCl:
• A high melting point
• A solid crystal structure
• The ability to conduct electricity when dissolved or melted

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Covalent Substances
There are two types:
1 Simple molecules
1️⃣
Examples: O₂, CO₂, CH₄ (methane)
• The atoms inside the molecule are held together by
strong covalent bonds.
• But between the molecules, there are only weak
intermolecular forces.
• That’s why these substances:
• Have low melting and boiling points
• Don’t conduct electricity
2️⃣Giant covalent structures (macromolecules)
These are huge networks of atoms bonded by covalent
bonds.
💎 Diamond
• Made of carbon atoms.
• Each carbon forms 4 strong bonds.
• Hardest natural material.
• Used in cutting tools and jewellery.
✏️Graphite
• Also made of carbon, but each carbon forms 3 bonds.
• Forms layers that slide over each other.
• Used in pencils and lubricants.
• Conducts electricity (unlike diamond!).
Diamond Graphite
3D strong lattice Layers with weak forces between them
No movement between atoms Layers can slide over each other
Very hard Very soft

Both are made of carbon atoms — but their structures are different, so
their properties are different.
Property Ionic Compounds (e.g. NaCl) Covalent Molecules (e.g. CO₂)
Made of Ions (metal + non-metal) Non-metal atoms
Bond type Ionic Covalent
Structure Giant lattice Simple molecule
Melting/boiling point High Low
Conducts electricity Yes (when melted/dissolved) No
Conducting Electricity
• Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when:
• Melted or
• Dissolved in water
• Why? Because the ions are free to move and carry charge.
• Covalent molecules usually don’t conduct electricity — no free
ions or electrons.
Key Vocabulary
Ionic bond – a metal gives electrons to a non-metal and
they stick together
• Covalent bond – two non-metals share electrons
• Lattice – a repeating, 3D pattern of particles
• Molecule – two or more atoms held by covalent bonds
• Macromolecule – a huge covalent structure (like
diamond or graphite)
• Intermolecular forces – weak forces between
molecules