Control Systems

Mathematical
Modeling of Physical
Systems
Module 2
Dr. Niti sh Katal

1
System
A collection of various physical, biological, or abstract components that together
performs a indented task.
From Control Perspective:
◦ When it is presented with certain input/excitation, it generates an output.

Certain input/ Output/

excitation Response
System
System
A collection of various physical, biological, or abstract components that together
performs a indented task.
From Control Perspective:
◦ When it is presented with certain input/excitation, it generates an output.

Certain input/
excitation
SS1 + SS3 Output/
Response
System SS4
SS2
System

Input Electrical Signal (Voltage)

Motor
Mechanical Energy (Torque/
Output Angular Displacement)

Input Acceleration
Car
Output Car Displacement
Classification of
Systems
• Based on the nature of the systems:

Time invariant and

Linear and Non- Static and Dynamic Casual and Non-
Time Variant
linear Systems Systems casual Systems
Systems
Linear & Non-linear Systems
Linear Non-linear Systems
•Systems
Output of the system • Output of the system does
varies linearly with input. not vary linearly with
• Satisfies principle of • input.
homogeneity and Doesn’t satisfy the principle
• Superposition . • of homogeneity and
E.g. Resistor superposition.
V E.g. Diode
I= I = I0( eVR − )
R 1
Static & Dynamic Systems
• Static • Dynamic Systems
• At any time, the output
Systems • At any time, the output of the
of the system depends system depends on present as well
only on present input. as past inputs.
• Memory less systems • Presence of memory can be
observed
•
• E.g. Inductor
• E.g.: Resistor

I(t) =
V(t) R
Time Invariant & Time Variant Systems
Casual & Non-casual Systems
• Causal Systems • Non-Causal Systems
• The output of the • The output of the system is
system is dependent dependent on the future
on inputs already • as well. System anticipates
received (present / future inputs based on
past). past
• Non-anticipatory
y(t) = f(x(t), x(t −
system
1), . . . ) y(t) = f(x(t), x(t + 1), . . .
• • )
E.g.: Thermostat •
based AC, motor or E.g. Weather forecasting
generator, etc. system, Missile guidance
system
Model
Equivalent
Plant / Process/ Mathematical
System Model

• An elemental or mathematical representation of a plant/ process.

• Helps in the analysis (input — output) of the system.
• Captures the dynamic behaviour of the system.
• Dynamics refers to the evolution of system variables.
• The room temperature when AC is switched ON.
• The speed of car when accelerator is pushed by a certain angle.
• The evolution of current flowing through an inductor when a voltage is applied.
Types of Mathematical
Models
Differential • Dynamics of the system represented in terms of differential equations.
Equations • Time domain the presentation of the system

Transfer Function
• Dynamics representation in terms of Laplace transformation expression
• Frequency domain representation of the system.
Models

• State is a set of variables that describe the system’s behavior in conjunction to

State Space system inputs.
Models • Dynamics are represented by the set of first order differential equations
using the state variables
Modelling of
Physical Systems

13
Outline
 Physical Systems
 Electrical Systems
 Elements of Electrical Systems
 Analysis of Electrical Systems
 Mechanical Systems
 Elements of Mechanical Systems
 Analysis of Mechanical Systems

14
Physical
Systems
Physical systems can be classified into various types:
• Electrical systems
• Mechanical systems
• Electronic systems
• Hydraulic systems
• Thermal systems

Each of these systems can be modeled in terms of certain basic elements

Basic element of all physical systems can be shown to be analogous.

15
Physical Systems

Electrical Systems
- -Based on the
Voltage typesystems
source of source, electrical systems can be classified
as: - Current source systems

Voltage Sourced Current Sourced

Basic System Elements
Resistor (R) Resistor (R)
Inductor (L) Inductor (L)
Capacitor (C) Capacitor (C)
Basic System Variables
Voltage (V) Current (I)
Charge (Q) Flux( ϕ )

16
Electrical
Physical Systems System
Elements
- Resistor (R)
- It's an element that resist the flow of current in an electrical system
𝑉 =𝐼𝑅
- Inductor (L)
- it's an element that stores electric energy in a magnetic field
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐼
𝑉= =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

- -Capacitor
it's an element that stores electric energy in the electrical field
(C)
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑉
𝐼= =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

17
Analysis of Electrical
Systems
- Nodal analysis using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
- Mesh / loop analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- Mesh analysis example

I
R L

C
V

18
Analysis of Electrical
Systems
- Nodal analysis using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
- Mesh / loop analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- Mesh analysis example

I
R L
V = VR + VL +
C VC
𝑑𝐼 1
V

𝑉 =𝐼𝑅+𝐿 + ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

19
Analysis of Electrical
Systems
- Nodal analysis using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
- Mesh / loop analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- Mesh analysis example

I
- Substituting
R L
𝑑𝑞
C 𝐼=
V 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑞 𝑞
𝑉 =𝑅 +𝐿 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
𝐶

20
Analysis of Electrical
Systems
- Nodal analysis using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
- Mesh / loop analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- Nodal analysis example

V Node 1

I R L C

21
Analysis of Electrical
Systems
- Nodal analysis using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
- Mesh / loop analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- Nodal analysis example

V
Node 1
I = IR + IL +
IC
𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉
𝐼= + ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡+𝐶
I R L C

𝑅 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

22
Analysis of Electrical
Systems
- Nodal analysis using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
- Mesh / loop analysis using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

- Nodal analysis example

V - Substituting
Node 1
𝑑𝜙
𝑉=
𝑑𝑡
I R L C
2
1 𝑑𝜙 𝜙 𝑑 𝜙
𝐼= + +𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
2

23
Physical Systems

Mechanical Systems
- -Based on the type
Transitional of motion,
systems mechanical
: Having systems can be classified as:
linear motion
- Rotational systems : Having angular motion around a fixed axis

Transitional Rotational
Basic System Elements
Mass (M) Inertia (J)
Spring (B) Damper (D)
Damper (K) Torsional Spring (K)
Basic System Variables
Force (F) Torque (T)
Displacement (x)
Angular Displacement( θ )

24
Physical Systems

Mechanical Systems
• Mass • Inertia
• Property of an element that • Property of an element that stores
stores the kinetic energy due to the kinetic energy due to rotational
transitional motion. motion.
• When a force is acting on a • When a torque is acting on a
body of mass M causing body of inertia J causing
displacement x, then: Displacement , then:

𝑑 𝑥
2
• 𝑑 𝜃
2
𝐹 =𝑀 2
𝑇= 𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

25
Physical Systems

Mechanical Systems
Damper
• It is an element that generates force which acts opposite to the
direction of motion, transitional or rotational.
• It resists motion.
• e.g. Friction
• When a force is acting on a body of mass M causing displacement
x, then:

• Transitional Rotational
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
𝐹 =𝐵 𝑇 =𝐷
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

26
 Physical Systems

Mechanical Systems
• Linear Spring • Torsional Spring
• Property of an element that • Property of an element that
stores the potential energy due stores the potential energy due
to transitional motion. to rotational motion.
• When a spring of spring • When a torsional spring of
constant K is applied force F constant K is applied torque J
causing displacement x, then: causing angular displacement

, then:
𝐹 =𝐾𝑥 𝐹 =𝐾 𝜃

27
Physical Systems

Mechanical Systems
• A model of a mass-spring- damper system which may be modelled with a
2nd order differential equation.

2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 ( 𝑡 )=𝑀 + 𝐵 + 𝐾𝑥
𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑𝑡

28
Analogous Systems
• Mechanical systems can be represented using electrical elements by the following
analogies:

• Two type of analogies:

• Force (torque) Voltage Analogy (FV Analogy)
• Force is analogous to voltage
• Force (torque) Current Analogy (FI Analogy)
• Forces is analogous to current

29
Mass Spring Damper
Systems

• Based on Newton’s 2nd Law:

𝐹 =𝑚 𝑥+
¨ 𝑏 𝑥˙ +𝑘𝑥

• Similarly, for rotational systems

𝑇 = 𝐽 𝜃+¨ 𝐷 𝜃+ ˙ 𝐾𝜃

30
F-V Analogy for MSD
System
I
R L

C
V

• Based on Newton’s 2nd Law: • Based on KVL:

𝑞
𝐹 =𝑚 𝑥+
¨ 𝑏 𝑥˙ +𝑘𝑥 ¨
𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑞+ ˙ +
𝑅𝑞
𝐶

IIIT UNA ... ECE ... IV ... CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 31

F-V Analogy for MSD System
• Based on Newton’s 2nd Law:
𝐹 =𝑚 𝑥+
¨ 𝑏 𝑥˙ +𝑘𝑥
• Based on KVL:
𝑞
¨ 𝑅𝑞
𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑞+ ˙ + I
𝐶 R L

C
V
Analogy
F⟶V
m⟶L
b⟶R
1
𝑘→
𝐶
x⟶
q

32
F-I Analogy for MSD
System
V Node 1

I R L C

Based on KCL:
• Based on Newton’s 2nd Law: •
𝜙˙ 𝜙
𝐹 =𝑚 𝑥+
¨ 𝑏 𝑥˙ +𝑘𝑥 𝐼 = 𝐶 𝜙+¨ +
𝑅 𝐿

33
Analogous System
Mechanical Systems Electrical Systems

Transitional Rotational F-V Analogy F-I Analogy

Force (F) Torque (T) Voltage (V) Current (I)

Mass (M) Inertia (J) Inductor (L) Capacitor (C)

Damper / Friction (B) Damper / Friction (D) Resistor (R) Conductor (1/R)

Linear Spring (K) Torsional Spring (K) Capacitor (1/C) Inductor (1/L)

Displacement (x) Charge (q)

Angular Displacement ( θ ) Flux (ϕ)

34
Time & Frequency
Domain
1

• Time Domain Representation 0.5

• How a signal changes with time? 0

-0.5

-1
0 5 10 15 20

• Frequency Domain Representation

• How much of signal lies within each frequency? 1 2
1 3

0
Domain
Transformation
𝒕↔𝒇
Any signal in time domain can be represented as a summation
of sinusoids of different frequencies .

𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕) LTI 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕+𝝓)

System
Laplace
Transformation
• The solution to the differential equations can be represented in terms of:
• Exponents and Sinusoidal

• Decomposes a signal which is in time domain into a domain of Exponents and

Sinusoidal.
• s – domain
• Named after first name of Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace
• s – is a complex variable
Exponent Term Frequency of sine wave

∞
ℒ ( 𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) ) = 𝑋 ( 𝑠 ) =∫ 𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑒
− 𝑠𝑡 The region in s-place for
𝑑𝑡 which the Laplace transform
of a system exist is k/s ROC
0
Laplace
Transformation
• To find the time response we need to solve ordinary differential equations.

• When the model equations are transformed to s - domain, they turn out to be

an algebraic equations which are easier to solve.

• The transformed model in s - domain is called transfer function.

• It is a model which is applicable to all kind of input signals

Laplace
Transformation
Transfer Functions

40
Transfer
Functions
• For an LTI system, Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the output to
the Laplace transform of the input with initial condition being zero.

• Mathematically if
• U(s) is the Laplace transformation of the input function and
• Y(s) is the Laplace transformation of the output, then
• Transfer function G(s) is given by:
𝑌 ( 𝑠)
𝐺 ( 𝑠) =
𝑈 ( 𝑠)
Transfer
Functions
• How to find the response of a system for a given input signal?

I (t) R L
• Model Equations:
Vi(t) C Vo(t)
Find Vo(t) for a given signal Vi(t)
Transfer
Functions
• Input and Output Variables:
• Input: Vi(t)
• Output: Vo(t)
• Laplace Transformation: (assuming initial conditions to be zero)

• Transfer Function:
Examples of
Transfer
Functions
Find the transfer function of the system described by the following equation:
Transfer
Functions
• Find the transfer function of the system described by the following equation:

• Laplace Transform :

• Transfer Function:
Transfer
Functions
 Transfer function of a system is independent of the magnitude and nature of the signal.
 The response of the system can be studied for various inputs, to understand the
nature of the system.
 Transfer function doesn’t provide any information regarding the physical structure of
the system; i.e. two different systems can have same transfer function.
General form of
Transfer
Functions
• General form of transfer function of a system:

n : order of the system

n≥m because the system becomes non-causal and is not physically realisable
Poles and Zeros
Poles:
• Roots of the denominator polynomial of the transfer function for values of s at which
transfer function becomes unbounded.

Zeros
• Roots of the numerator of the transfer function for values of s at which transfer
function vanishes.

Poles and zeros along with the system gain K, characterise the
input-output system dynamics.
Procedure for
Obtaining Transfer functions
• Following assumptions are made in deriving the TF for physical systems:
• It is assumed that there is no loading.
• i.e. No power is drawn at the output of the system.
• If the system has more than non-loading elements in tandem;
• Then the TF of element can be determined independently.
• The overall TF of the system can be determined by multiplying the
individual TFs.
• If the system has elements which load each other
• The overall TF should be derived by the basic analysis without regard to
individual TFs.

IIIT UNA ... ECE ... IV ... CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 49

Procedure for
Obtaining Transfer
functions
• Example:
• Let us consider two identical RC circuits connected in cascade

IIIT UNA ... ECE ... IV ... CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 50

Procedure for
Obtaining Transfer
functions
Loop 1
𝟏
𝑽 𝒊 ( 𝒔 )= 𝑹 𝑰 𝟏 ( 𝒔 ) +
𝒔𝑪
( 𝑰𝟏( 𝒔 )− 𝑰𝟐( 𝒔 ))

Loop 2
𝟏
𝑽 𝒐 ( 𝒔 )= 𝑹 𝑰 𝟐 ( 𝒔 )+
𝒔𝑪
( 𝑰𝟐 ( 𝒔 ) − 𝑰𝟏 ( 𝒔 ) )
𝟏
(
𝑽 𝒐 𝒔 =−) 𝑰𝟐( 𝒔 )
𝒔𝑪

IIIT UNA ... ECE ... IV ... CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 51

Procedure for
Obtaining Transfer
functions
Loop 1
𝟏 𝑽 𝒐 ( 𝒔) 𝟏
𝑽 𝒊 ( 𝒔 )= 𝑹 𝑰 𝟏 ( 𝒔 ) + ( 𝑰𝟏( 𝒔 )− 𝑰𝟐( 𝒔 )) =
𝒔𝑪 𝑽 𝒊 ( 𝒔 ) ( 𝑹𝑪 )𝟐 𝒔 𝟐 +𝟐 𝑹𝑪𝒔 +𝟏

Loop 2
𝟏
𝑽 𝒐 ( 𝒔 )= 𝑹 𝑰 𝟐 ( 𝒔 )+
𝒔𝑪
( 𝑰𝟐 ( 𝒔 ) − 𝑰𝟏 ( 𝒔 ) )

𝟏
𝑽 𝒐 ( 𝒔 )=− 𝑰𝟐( 𝒔 )
𝒔𝑪

IIIT UNA ... ECE ... IV ... CONTROL SYSTEMS (ECC402) 52

Transfer Function
Block Diagram
Representation

53
Block Diagram :
Motivation
• How to visualise a complex system with
many components?
• How to understand the flow and
transformation of signals in complex
systems?
• How to find the transfer function of a
complex system?

54
Block Diagram of a
System
• A short hand pictorial representation of the system which
•depicts:
Each functional component or sub-system
• Flow of signals from one sub-system to other
• Block diagram provides a simple representation of complex systems.
• Block diagram enables calculating the overall system transfer function
provided the transfer functions of each of the component or sub-
systems are known.

55
Review: Block
Diagram
• A short hand pictorial representation of the system which depicts:
• Each functional component or sub-system
• Flow of signals from one sub-system to other
• Components of a block diagram:
• Blocks to represent components.
• Arrows to indicate direction of signals flow
• Summing points to show merging signals, and
• Taking off points to indicate branching of signals

Blocks Arrows Summing Points Takeoff Points

A
U(s) Y(s)
G(s)

56
Block Diagram of a Closed
Loop System

57
 Block Diagram :
Reduction
• Block diagram reduction refers to simplification of block diagrams of complex
system to certain rearrangements.

• Simplification enables easy calculation of overall transfer function of the system.

• Simplification is done by using certain rules, called ‘the rules of block diagram
algebra.’

• All these rules are derived by simple algebraic manipulations of the equation
representing the blocks

58
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
1. Combining blocks in cascade

Orignal Equivalent

2. Combining blocks in parallel

Orignal Equivalent
U

59
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
3. Eliminating the Feedback Loop

Orignal Equivalent

U Y

HK
K

60
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
4. Interchanging the Summing Point

Orignal

A
A±B±
C

B C

61
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
4. Interchanging the Summing Point

Orignal Equivalent

A A
A±B± A±C±
C B

B C C B

62
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
5. Moving a Summing Block After a
Point

Orignal

63
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
5. Moving a Summing Block After a
Point
Orignal Equivalent

64
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
6. Moving a Summing Block Ahead of a
Point

Orignal

65
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
6. Moving a Summing Block Ahead of a
Point
Orignal Equivalent

66
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
7. Moving a Take-off Point After of a Block

Orignal

67
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
7. Moving a Take-off Point After of a Block

Orignal
Equivalent

68
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
8. Moving a Take-off Point Ahead of a Block

Orignal

69
Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
8. Moving a Take-off Point Ahead of a Block

Orignal Equivalent

70
 Rules of Block Diagram
Reduction
Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it
towards right.
Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it
towards left.
Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e.,
single block.

71
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 1

72
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 1

73
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 2

74
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 3

75
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 4

76
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 5

77
Block Diagram Reduction
Problem 6

78
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS
(SFG)
 For complicated system, block diagram is tedious and time-
consuming task.
 Signal Flow Graph is an alternate approach to block
diagram representation.
 It is graphical representation of the relationship between
the various system variables.
 Signal for graph does not require any reduction because there is a
graph gain formula which directly gives the transfer function.
 It was developed by S. J. Mason
PROPERTIES OF SIGNAL FLOW
GRAPHS (SFG)
 Signal flow graph can be obtained from:
 The block diagram of a system.
 From the system equations directly.
 The equations must be in algebraic form (s -
domain).
 It is applicable only for linear systems
SFG FUNDAMENTALS
• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and
gives the relationships among the signals.

• Consider a simple equation & a block diagram below and

draw it’s
signal flow graph.

y = Kx

• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown

below;
x K y
COMPONENTS OF SFG
• Node
• The present system variable which is equal to the sum of all incoming signals
at a node.

• Branch
• Signal travels along a branch from one node to another in the direction
indicated by the branch arrow

• Each branch has a gain

• Branches are always unidirectional
• The signal passing through a branch gets multiplied by it's gain
EXAMPLE : SFG

Y1(s) = G11(s) . R1(s) + G12(s) .

R2(s)

Y2(s) = G21(s) . R1(s) + G22(s) .

R2(s)
EXAMPLE : SFG

Y1(s) = G11(s) . R1(s) + G12(s) . R2(s)

Y2(s) = G21(s) . R1(s) + G22(s) . R2(s)

EXAMPLE : SFG

• U, E, Y, B are the nodes, with symbols representing node

variables
E = (1)U + (−1)B = U − B

B = (H )Y =

HY Y = (G)E =

GE
EXAMPLE : SFG
U U 1 E G Y 1

-1
H

• U, E, Y, B are the nodes, with symbols representing node

variables
E = (1)U + (−1)B = U − B

B = (H )Y =

HY Y = (G)E =

GE
EXAMPLE : SFG
Construct SFG for the following equations
r1 & r2 are inputs and
x1 & x2 are outputs

a11 . x1 + a12 . x2 + r1 =

x1 a21 . x1 + a22 . x2 + r2 =

x2
EXAMPLE : SFG
Construct SFG for the following
equations
x0 is input &
x4 is output

x1 =

ax0 + bx1 + cx2 x2 =

dx1 + ex3

x3 =
SFG TERMINOLOGY
• Input Node
• Node with only outgoing branches. i.e., X 1

• Output Node
• Node with only incoming branches.
• If this condition is not met, an
additional branch with unit
gain maybe introduced. i.e., X4
• Path
• Path is the transversal of connected
branches in the direction of branch
arrows that no node is transversed
more than once.
• X1 to X2 to X3 to X4
• X1 toX2 to X4
• X2 to X3 to X4
SFG TERMINOLOGY
• Forward Path
• A path from the input node
to the output node
• X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and
• X1 to X2 to X4
• Loop / Feedback path
• A path which originates
and terminates at the
same node
• X2 to X3 and back to X2
• Self Loop • Loop Gain
• Feedback
single loop consisting • The product of the branch
branch
of gains of the loop. i.e.,
A33a
• Path Gain the loop gain of the
• Product of branch gains feedback loop from X2 to
encountered in X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
transversing a
• path
X1 to /X2loop.
to X3 to X4 is
• Non-touching loops:
• Loops with no common
A21A32A43 nodes
SFG
• Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
G6(s
)

G1(s G2(s G3(s G4(s G5(s G7(s

R(s ) ) ) ) ) ) C(s
) V5(s V4(s V3(s V2(s V1(s )
) ) ) ) )
H2(s)
H1(s)
H3(s)

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
SFG
• Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
G6(s
)

G1(s G2(s G3(s G4(s G5(s G7(s

R(s ) ) ) ) ) ) C(s
) V5(s V4(s V3(s V2(s V1(s )
) ) ) ) )
H2(s)
H1(s)
H3(s)
a) Input node.
a) R(s)
b) Output node.
a) C(s)
c) Forward paths. (f) Determine the path gains of the forward
paths.
• There are two forward path gains;
G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G7(s)
G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G6(s)G7(s)
SFG
G6(s
)

G1(s G2(s G3(s G4(s G5(s G7(s

R(s ) ) ) ) ) ) C(s
) V5(s V4(s V3(s V2(s V1(s )
) ) ) ) )
H2(s)
H1(s)
H3(s)

d) Feedback paths (loops).

f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.

G2(s)H1(s) G4(s)G5(s)H3(s)

G4(s)H2(s) G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)
SFG G6(s
)

G1(s G2(s G3(s G4(s G5(s G7(s

R(s ) ) ) ) ) ) C(s
) V5(s V4(s V3(s V2(s V1(s )
) ) ) ) )
H2(s)
H1(s)
H3(s)

g) Non-touching loops

[G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)H2(s)]

[G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)G5(s)H3(s)]

[G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)]
MASON’S GAIN
FORMULA
• Purpose of Mason’s gain formula is to find overall gain of the SFG
which is the transfer function of the system.

• TF : overall transfer function of the system

• pk : path gain of the kth forward path
• N : number of forward paths in the graph
• : determinant of the graph
• Δk : the value of Delta for the part of the graph not touching the kth
forward path
MASON’S GAIN
FORMULA

• Delta ( ) : Determinant of the graph:

- 1 - (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all combination of
two non-touching loops) - (sum of gain products of all combination of three non-
touching loops) + …
• Δk :
- The value of delta for the path of the graph not touching the kth forward path.
- The value of delta for a reduced value with nodes and branches in the kth
forward path.
FINDING TRANSFER
FUNCTION USING SFG
1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward
path i.

2. Calculate all loop transfer functions

3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time

4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time, etc

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2, 3, 4 and 5

6. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward

path i
Thank You!

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