COMPUTER

FUNDAMENTALS
COMPUTER
COMPUTE TO CALCULATE

A computer is an electronic device that transforms data

into information.

Data can be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects, it

can also be name, age, sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in
your class or income, savings, investments, etc. of a country
BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS
Accepts data or instructions by way of input.
 Stores data
 Processes data as required by the user
 Gives results in the form of output
 Controls all operations inside a computer
Input
This is the process of entering data and programs in the computer system. Therefore,
the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

Storage
The data and instructions are saved/ stored permanently in storage unit. The storage unit
performs the following major functions: ● All data and instructions, before and after
processing, are stored here,and ● Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
Processing
The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the
type of data provided. After this data is sent back to the storage unit.
 Output
This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. The output produced by the computer after processing is stored inside
the computer before it is given to you in human readable form. The output is also
stored inside the computer for further processing.
Control
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by
control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the
computer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Speed
As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only a fraction of a second for calculations that
manually take hours to complete. It takes few minutes for the computer to process huge amount of
data and give the result.
Accuracy
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same
accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of the computer. The errors in
computer are mainly due to human and inaccurate data.
Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
any error.
Versatility
The computer is highly versatile. You can use it for a number of tasks simultaneously such as, for
inventory management, preparation of electrical bills, preparation of pay cheques, etc. Similarly, in
libraries computer can be used for various library house keeping operations like acquisition,
circulation, serial control, etc. and also by students for searching library books on the computer
Power of Remembering
Computer has the power of storing large amount of information or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled whenever required for any numbers of years.
It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and
when to retrieve or delete stored data.

Dumb Machine with no IQ

Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instructions from
the user. It performs the instructions at a tremendous speed and with great accuracy
as it has the power of logic. It is for you to decide what you want to do and in which
sequence. So, a computer cannot take decision of its own as human beings can take.
Storage
The computer has an in-built memory where it can store huge amount of data. You
can also store data in secondary storage devices such as CDs, DVDs, and pen drives
which can be kept outside the computer and can be carried to other computers.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
• The first generation computers appeared in mid-1940s. The present
day computer, however, has undergone rapid changes for the last
seven decades. This period, during which the evolution of computer
took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as
Generations of Computers
 Generation Period Technology

First 1946-59 Based on vacuum tube

technology

Second 1957-64 Transistor based technology

replaces vacuum tube

Third 1965-70 Integrated circuit (IC) technology

developed

Fourth 1970-90 Microprocessors developed

Fifth 1990-till date Use of Bio-Chip technology

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
a) Super Computer
Supercomputers are fastest computers and are very expensive. These are employed for
specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.
b) Mainframe Computer
It is a very large and expensive computer and is capable of supporting hundreds, or
even thousands of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple
microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at
the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are
more powerful than supercomputers because they support simultaneous programs. But,
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a
c) Mini Computer
It is a mid sized computer in size and power. It lies between workstations and
mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred. In general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system
capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
d) Micro Computer
i. Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
ii. Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and
keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a
notebook computer.
iii. Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant): a
hand-sized computer, Palmtop, does not have keyboard, but its screen serves both as
an input and output device.
e)Workstations
It is a terminal or desktop computer in a network. Workstation is just a generic term for
a user’s machine (client machine) in contrast to a “server” or “mainframe.”
Computer's classification based on
Capacity
As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified
as follows −
• Analog Computer
• Digital computer
• Hybrid computer
Analog Computer
A computer that uses physical means like mechanical or
hydraulic components to do the computation rather than
electronic circuits is called an analogue computer. These
computers work with continuous data and can manage
physical quantities efficiently. They are particularly good at
solving differential equations and simulating dynamic
systems.

In lieu of numbers, an analogue computer performs

arithmetic operations based on measurable quantities, such
as mechanical movement or the rotation of gears. In
analogue computers, data is processed as continuous
signals for its operation, whereas in digital computers, data
is transmitted as discrete signals (or discontinuous signals).
DIGITAL COMPUTER
A digital computer is a type of computer that represents
and processes data using discrete, distinct values.
In digital computers, data is processed using binary
numbers 0 and 1.

These computers are designed to perform arithmetic

calculations and complex data processing and
manipulation. The main components of a digital
computer are input, processing, and output.
Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer is a type of computer system that
integrates the features and capabilities of both analogue
and digital computers. This integration allows the hybrid
computer to perform various tasks efficiently by
leveraging the strengths of both digital and analogue
technologies.
The main components of a hybrid computer are the
analogue and digital components −
• Analog Component − Analogue components in a
hybrid computer can process real-world data like voltage,
current, temperature, pressure, etc. using analogue
circuits and components.
• Digital Component − Digital computers work with
discrete data and are based on binary numbers (0s and
1s). Digital components in a hybrid computer provide the
computational power to perform complex calculations
and control the overall operation of the system.
Computer's classification based on
Purpose
As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −
• Special Purpose
• General Purpose
Special Purpose Computer
A computer that is designed and optimised for a specific task or set of tasks is called a special purpose
computer (SPC). SPCs are designed to excel at a single or limited set of functions, frequently with a high
degree of efficiency, speed, and accuracy.

Some of the following popular SPCs are:

• Embedded Systems − These systems are integrated with devices to control specific functions. For
example, a car's engine control unit and microwave ovens
• Digital Signal Processors − These are commonly used in applications like audio processing, image
compression, and telecommunications.
• Automated Teller Machines − ATMs are special-purpose computers designed specifically for
banking transactions and interactions with customers.
• Medical Equipment − Machines like MRI and CT scanners are specialised computers used for
capturing and processing medical images.
• Spacecraft Computers − Computers used in spacecraft have to operate in extreme conditions and
are optimised for the demands of space missions.
GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER
A computer that is designed to perform a wide range of tasks and
functions is called A General Purpose Computer (GPC). A GPC is
versatile and can be used for various purposes by running different
software and applications.

Some of the following popular GPCs are as −

• Turing Completeness − A GPC can simulate any algorithm or
computation that can be explored algorithmically.
• Programmability − GPCs can run different applications.
• General-Purpose Operating System − GPCs like Windows, macOS,
or Linux that provide an interactive user interface and manage
hardware resources, enabling the execution of various application
programmes.
• Input and Output Capabilities − GPCs have input and output
devices (keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc.) that permit users to interact
with the system and receive feedback.
INPUT AND OUTPUT UNIT
INPUT DEVICES
Input is any data or instructions entered into the memory of a computer.

An input device is any hardware component that allows a user to enter

data and instructions into a computer.
QWERTY Keyboard

A keyboard contains keys that allow a user to enter data and

instructions into the computer. All computer keyboards have
a typing area that includes the letters of the alphabet,
numbers, punctuation marks, and other basic keys. Many
desktop computer keyboards also have a numeric keypad
located on the right side of the keyboard. On notebook and
many handheld computers, the keyboard is built into the top
of the system unit. A standard computer keyboard is called a
QWERTY keyboard because of the layout of its typing area
which is similar to that of a typewriter.
Advantages
It is not necessary to buy additional equipment because most
computer systems are normally supplied with keyboards.
Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally
faster than with pointing devices.
Disadvantages
It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and
accurately.
Typing speeds are still very slow when compared with
computer speeds.
Mouse
A mouse is the most widely used pointing device with a GUI environment on personal
computers. A mechanical mouse has a rubber ball on its underside to detect movement
of the mouse. An optical mouse uses devices that emit and sense light to detect the
mouse's movement. A cordless mouse (either mechanical or optical) transmits data
using wireless technology such as radio waves or infrared light waves.
Advantages
A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface.
Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the screen is faster
than using a keyboard.

Disadvantages

It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.

Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard.
A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision.
A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.
A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a trackball.
 OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is a hardware device that is used to show the
processed results to the user in the form of text, audio, video,
visuals on a computer screen or a printed hard copy on paper.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
 Speakers
 Headphones
 Projector
 GPS
 MONITORS
• Monitors also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU), is an output
device of a computer. It is the most popular output device which looks
like a TV screen and shows the output in the form of text, audio, video
and images. Overall, it produces output with visual effects to connect
the user with the system. Images data form tiny dots, called pixels that
are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image
depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - a fixed location on the
screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
Components of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The key components of a CRT Monitor are as follows −
• Electron Guns − Produces beams of electrons to display images
• Phosphorescent Screen − Once electrons hit on phosphor-coated screen, it glows and makes visibility
• Circuit Board − Provides connectivity for external circuitry
• Deflection Yoke − It deflects the electron beam in precise patterns
Advantages
• Produces output with visual effects.
• It has good resolutions which ensure proper visibility of image-related outputs.
• No motion blur due to instant response time.
• It can display multiple resolutions without scaling artefacts.
• It has high refresh rates which reduces flicker and eye strain.
Disadvantages
• Large in Size
• Carries high weight
• A lot of power consumption
• Produces heat
 FLAT-PANEL DISPLAY MONITOR
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirements in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and graphics displays.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
•Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For example, plasma panels and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
Components of Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The key components of a Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows −
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) − It is positioned between two layers of glass or plastic and modulates light to create images.
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) − it emits light and improves colour and contrast.
• Plasma Display Panel (PDP) − It contains small cells with phosphor coated to emit light.
• Quantum Dot Display − It contains quantum dots to enhance colour accuracy.
Advantages
• Smaller in size makes it easy to mount and transport.
• It consumes less power.
• It has higher resolutions which makes good picture quality.
• It makes users comfortable to get connected for a longer period and reduces eye strain.
• Available in different sizes.
Disadvantages
• Expensive as compared to CRT monitors.
• Its resolution is not up to mark as compared to CRT.
• It is a soft covering which may damage and be difficult to clean.
 GRAPHIC PLOTTER

A plotter, which is a type of printer, receives instructions from a computer to produce line drawings on paper using one or more
automated pens. In contrast to a standard printer, a plotter can create uninterrupted point-to-point lines directly from vector graphic files
or commands. Computer graphics and engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create high-quality, accurate, and detailed
drawings or plots on paper or other media. It draws continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike a standard
printer. Key features of graphic plotters are as −
• Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic plotters to create lines and shapes precisely using continuous points instead
of dots like raster printers.
• Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument is drawn on paper for graphic plotters. The pen may move X and Y on a
moveable arm to draw complicated shapes.
• Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture, cartography, and textile design. They were
popular for technical drawings and diagrams before digital.

A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawings. They are still used in sectors and applications that need accuracy and
high-quality output, even if digital printing has made them less widespread.
Components of Graphic Plotters
The key components of a Graphic Plotter are as follows −
•Plotter Head − A plotter head contains multiple pens of different colours to draw images.
• Plotting Surface − It is used to hold and feed paper.
• Microcontroller − Controls the plotting process and interprets commands.
• Interfaces − It provides interfaces to connect USB, Ethernet, or wireless connections.
• Memory − A device used to Store plotting instructions to process temporarily.
Types of plotters
• Pen Plotters − It uses vector graphics and line drawings.
• Drum plotters − A drum plotter is a device that uses a rotating drum to draw on paper. The drum
revolves to create one direction of the plot, while the pens move to create the other direction.
• Flatbed plotters − Flatbed plotters are used to draw on paper placed on a flat surface.
• Electrostatic plotters − This printer draws on negatively charged paper with positively charged toner.
• Inkjet plotters − The printer uses vector graphic technology to control the movement of the pen
plotters, which in turn drop ink beads of different colours onto the drawing surface.

Advantages
Some of the key advantages of Graphic Plotters are as follows −
• High Resolution − It has good resolution which opens it for CAD drawings.
• Colour Representation − It automatically sets colour matching in designs.
• Large Screen Size − It provides appropriate space to view large drawings.
• Software Compatibility − It is compatible with CAD software, graphic design, and related tools.
• Preview Functionality − A user can preview plots on the monitor to reduce errors and enhance
accuracy.
• Editing Tools − Multiple editing tools are available for graphics before plotting.
 PRINTERS
A printer is an output device, which is used to print processed data on paper. It is one of the most popular output devices.
The information that is printed is commonly referred to as hard copy because it physically exists and is a more enduring
form of output than what is displayed on a VDU. Printers play a crucial role in generating hard copies of digital
documents and images and are available in different types tailored to specific purposes and settings. They cater to diverse
user requirements, offering features such as top-notch photo printing, speedy document output, and the ability to create
three-dimensional objects, making them suitable for home, office, or industrial use.

Types of Printer
Different types of Printers are categorised in the following image

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
Types of Impact Printers
Generally, Impact printers are of two types −
• Character printers
• Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. A printer that holds individual characters until it is ready to print them. Instead of
printing one line at a time, a character printer prints one character at a time. Nowadays, these printers are not commonly used due to speed limitations
and their ability to only print text.
Types of Character Printers
• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
• Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price.
Each character printed is in the form of a pattern of dots and the head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form
a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
• Inexpensive
• Durable
• Widely Used
• Able to print on multi-part forms
• Low Operating Costs
• Reliable
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
A daisy wheel printer is an impact printer that utilizes a spinning disk, known as the "daisy wheel," which contains pre-formed characters
embossed on its "petals." During printing, the printer picks the appropriate petal, impacts it against an ink ribbon, and then onto the paper to
generate high-quality text.
The head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer.
These printers are generally used for word processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality. In the
1970s and 1980s, daisy wheel printers were commonly utilized for word processing before the introduction of laser and inkjet printers.

Advantages
• It produces High-Quality Text so more suitable for professional documents
• More reliable than DMP
• Better quality
• Fonts of character can be easily changed
• Durable so it has a long lifespan
• Each character is pre-formed which shows its consistent print quality
Disadvantages
• Slower than DMP
• Limited to Text
• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP
• Changes in fonts or styles need physical changes on the daisy wheel
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. Line printers are specialised impact printers which are specifically designed to get
high-speed, high-volume printing, primarily for text. These are still useful in certain applications where speed and durability are critical. Their
capacity to print a complete line of text at once distinguishes them from other impact printers, making them excellent for applications requiring
quick and consistent document creation.
Types of Line Printer
• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called a drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into several tracks. Total tracks are equal
to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, the drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48 character sets, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast
and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
• Very high speed
• Low cost
• Durable so they can run a long life
• Able to handle large print volumes
• Provides good printing quality
Disadvantages
• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
A chain printer is a high-speed line printer with a revolving chain mechanism that prints characters on paper. Chain printers were widely used in large
data centres and business settings where high-volume printing was required. They are well-known for their ability to handle huge print jobs quickly and
efficiently. In this printer, a chain of character sets is used; hence it is called a Chain Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
• Character fonts can easily be changed
• Able to print hundreds to thousands of lines per minute
• Durable
• Different languages can be used with the same printer
• Cost-effective for printing large quantities of text.
Disadvantages
• Noisy
• Limited Graphics
• Limited with fixed fonts and styles
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These
printers print a complete page at a time, thus they are also called Page
Printers.
These printers are of two types −
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character sizes
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
• Very high speed
• Very high-quality output
• Good graphics quality
• Supports many fonts and different character sizes
Disadvantages
• Expensive
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink
onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high-quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Color printing is also possible.
Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
• High-quality printing
• More reliable
Disadvantages
• Expensive as the cost per page is high
• Slow as compared to laser printer
 [Link]
What is Processor in Computer?
Processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) refers to logic circuitry that responds to and processes
basic instructions that drive computers.
This integrated electronic circuit performs calculations that run computers. These circuits are found in
electronic devices. They receive input in the form of program instructions and execute calculations for
providing with which the user will interact.
For any operation on a computer, the processor must interpret the operating system.
A processor consists of
ARITHMETICAL LOGIC AND A CONTROL UNIT (CU)
that measures capability in terms of:
• Maximum number of bits/instructions
• Relative clock speed
• The ability to process instruction at a given time
 COMPONENTS OF PROCESSOR
A processor has four components: a floating point unit (FPU), an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers, and cache
memories.
1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• ALU is the main component in a processor that performs various arithmetic and logic operations. It is an
integrated circuit within the CPU/GPU, due to which it is also known as an integer unit (IU). This is the last
component that performs calculations in the processor.
2. Floating-Point Unit (FPU)
• It is part of the computer system used for carrying out operations on floating-point numbers. These operations
include square root, multiplication, division, subtraction, and addition. It can perform transcendental functions
such as trigonometric and exponential functions; however, it may not be accurate.
3. Registers
• Registers are types of computer memory that accept, transfer, and store data and instructions being used. It
instructs ALU about the processes that must be carried out and stores the results of these operations.
4. Cache
• Cache is the smaller yet faster memory located close to the processor’s core. This memory stores the copy of
data from the frequently used main locations. There are three levels of cache: L1, L2 and L3 cache. L1 is the
primary chip, which is embedded in the processor chip.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROCESSORS
1. Application-Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP)
• It is a component used in the system-on-a-chip design. The instruction set of ASIP is
customized to benefit specific applications. For certain ASIPs, this instruction set is
configurable. ASIP can be an alternative to hardware accelerators for video coding or baseband
signal processing.

2. Processor based on Flynn’s classification

• According to Flynn’s taxonomy, processors can be classified based on concurrent instructions
and data streams available in architecture. Let us now discuss each of the above one by one.
2.1 SISD (Single Instruction Single Data)
• It is a computer architecture in which a single uni-core processor executes a single instruction
stream. This is done for operating on data stored in a single memory. SISD can have (as per
Flynn) concurrent processing characteristics.
• Here, instructions are sent to the control unit from the memory module. Then, they are decoded
and sent to a processing unit that processes data retrieved from the memory module and then
sends it back. Examples of SSID are traditional uniprocessor machines such as PCs, old
mainframes, pipelined, and superscalar processors.
• 2.2 Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD)
• It is a type of computer that comes with multiple processing elements. It simultaneously performs same operation on multiple
data points as well as parallel computations on only a single instruction at a given time. SIMD may be a part of the hardware
design and is directly accessible through instruction set architecture (ISA). These machines do not exploit concurrency.
• 2.3 Multiple instruction Single Data (MISD)
• It is a type of parallel computing architecture where multiple functional units perform different operations on the same data.
Every CU here handles and processes one instruction stream through corresponding processing elements. It has an architecture
that is used for fault tolerance. MISD organisation computers are used rarely. Space Shuttle flight control computer is an example
of MISD.
• 2.4 Multiple Instruction Multiple Data (MIMD)
• This refers to a technique used for achieving parallelism. Machines that have MIMD have several processors that function
independently and asynchronously. Multiple autonomous processors execute, at any time, execute different instructions on
different data pieces.
• These machines can be either shared or distributed memory categories based on how MIMD processors access memory. Shared
memory may be bus-based, hierarchical or extended types. Distributed memory may be of hypercube or mesh types.
• 3. Processor Based on Number of Cores
• Following are the different types of processors based on the number of cores:
• 3.1 Single core
• A single-core microprocessor has a single core in its die. It performs the ‘fetch-decode-execute cycle’ once per clock cycle since it
runs only on a single thread. These processors have been less in demand due to lesser processing power. Their slow speed has
made multi-core systems more popular.
• 3.2 Multi-core
• Multi-core processors are microprocessors on a single integrated unit having two or more cores. Each core reads and executes the
program instructions. Here, a single processor can simultaneously run instructions on a separate core. Due to this, the overall
speed for programs supporting multithreading and parallel computing techniques increases.
• 3.3 Hyper-Threading
• It is a technology that is used in the Intel microprocessors. This technology allows a single microprocessor to act as two
processors for the operating system and the application. Through hyperthreading, processor resources are more efficiently used,
allowing multiple threads to run on each core.
Difference between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
Temporary Storage Permanent Storage
Store data in GBs (1-128 GB per chip) Store Data in MBs(4-8MB per chip)
volatile Non volatile
Used in normal operations Used for startup process of computer
Writing data is faster Writing data is slower
Types of ROM
1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be
programmed by user. Once programmed, the data and
instructions in it cannot be changed.
2. 2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory)
– It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from it,
expose it to ultra violet light. To reprogram it, erase all
the previous data.
3. 3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read
only memory) – The data can be erased by applying
electric field, no need of ultra violet light. We can
erase only portions of the chip.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Hardware refers to the physical equipment used for the input, processing,
output and storage activities of a computer system. It consists of mechanical
and electronic devices, which we are able to see and touch easily.

Software:
A computer cannot do anything on its own. It has to be guided by the user. We
have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer in order to do any
specific job. Software is simply a computer program or a set of instructions.
Software guides the computer at every step indicating where to start and stop
during a particular job. The process of software development is called
programming.
● Central processing unit (CPU): It manipulates the data and controls
the tasks performed by the other components.
● Primary storage: It stores temporarily data and program instructions
during the processing.
● Primary memory (main memory): These are RAM (Random
Access Memory/Read-Write Memory), and ROM (Read-only-memory).
● Secondary storage: These store data and programs for future use.
These are Hard Disk (Local Disk) and External Hard Disc, Optical
Disks,(CDR, CDRW, DVD-R, DVD-RW ), Pen Drive, Memory Cards,
etc.
Secondary Storage Devices Communication Devices: These are used
for communication or flow of data from one computer to another
computer. Some of them are Modem, Switch, Router, TV tuner card,
etc.
 • TYPES OF SOFTWARE
There are two types of software, namely, system software and application software.
System software
System Software are general purpose programs designed to perform tasks such as
controlling all operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It
communicates with keyboard, printer, card reader, disk, tapes, etc. It also monitors the
use of various hardwares like memory, CPU, etc. System software acts as an interface
between hardware and application software. Remember that it is not possible to run
applicaion software without system software. Some of the system softwares are Disc
Operating System(DOS), Windows, Unix/Linux, MAC/OS X etc.
Application software
It is a set of programs, which are written to perform specific tasks of the users of
computer. These softwares are developed in high level languages to help the user to get
the computer to perform various tasks. Some of the application software are MS
Office, Macromedia (Dreamweaver, Flash, Freehand), Adobe (PageMaker,
PhotoShop), LIBSYS, SOUL, WINISIS, KOHA, etc.