Machine Learning Module-3

Prof. Salma Itagi

Asst. Professor
Dept. of CSE,SVIT

Prof. Salma Itagi,Dept. of CSE, SVIT 1

 SYLLABUS
• Similarity-based Learning: Nearest-Neighbor Learning, Weighted K-Nearest-Neighbor
Algorithm, Centroid Classifier, Locally Weighted Regression (LWR).
• Regression Analysis: Introduction to Regression, Introduction to Linear Regression,
Multiple Linear Regression, Polynomial Regression, Logistic Regression.
• Decision Tree Learning: Introduction to Decision Tree Learning Model, Decision Tree
Induction Algorithms.
• Chapter-4 (4.2-4.5), Chapter-5 (5.1-5.3, 5.5-5.7), Chapter-6 (6.1, 6.2)

• Text book: S Sridhar, M Vijayalakshmi, “Machine

Learning”, OXFORD University Press 2021, First
Edition.

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 Nearest Neighbor Learning
• A simple Nearest Neighbor Learning is KNN(K Nearest
Neighbor)which is a non parametric method used for both
classification and regression.

• It is a simple and powerful non-parametric algorithm that predicts the

category of the test instance according to the 'k' training samples
which are closer to the test instance and classifies it to that category
which has the largest probability.

• A visual representation of this learning is shown in Figure 4.1.

• There are two classes of objects called C1 and C2 in the given figure.
When given a test instance T, the category of this test instance is
determined by looking at the class of k = 3 nearest neighbors. Thus,
the class of this test instance T is predicted as C2.

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Algorithm -KNN

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Example

Test case (6.1,40,5)

K=3
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 Weighted K-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm

• The Weighted k-NN is an extension of k-NN.

• It chooses the neighbors by using the weighted distance.
• The k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) algorithm has some serious limitations as its performance is solely
dependent on choosing the k nearest neighbors, the distance metric used and the decision rule.
• However, the principle idea of Weighted k-NN is that k closest neighbors to the test instance are
assigned a higher weight in the decision as compared to neighbors that are farther away from the test
instance.
• The idea is that weights are inversely proportional to distances.
• The selected k nearest neighbors can be assigned uniform weights, which means all the instances in each
neighborhood are weighted equally or weights can be assigned by the inverse of their distance.
• In the second case, closer neighbors of a query point will have a greater influence than neighbors which are
further away.
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Nearest Centroid Classifier-Mean Difference Classifier

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 Locally Weighted Regression

• Locally Weighted Regression (LWR) is a non-parametric supervised learning algorithm that performs local

regression by combining regression model with nearest neighbor's model.

• LWR is also referred to as a memory-based method as it requires training data while prediction but uses only

the training data instances locally around the point of interest.

• Using nearest neighbors algorithm, we find the instances that are closest to a test instance and fit linear

function to each of those 'k' nearest instances in the local regression model.

• The key idea is that we need to approximate the linear functions of all 'k' neighbors that minimize the error

such that the prediction line is no more linear but rather it is a curve.
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CHAPTER 2
Regression Analysis: Introduction to Regression, Introduction to Linear
Regression, Multiple Linear Regression, Polynomial Regression, Logistic
Regression.
Chapter-5 (5.1-5.3, 5.5-5.7)
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Introduction to Regression Analysis

• Regression is a kind of supervised learning.

• To get a relation between dependent and independent variable using the

equation y=f(x).Here x is independent variable, y is dependent variable.

• x is also called explanatory variable, exploratory variable, predictor,

independent, a covariate or a dominant point.

• Dependent variables are also called as labels,target variables or response

variables.

• Regression is used for prediction or forecasting.

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Introduction to Linearity,
correlation, Causation
Regression and correlation
• Correlation among 2 variables can be shown on a scatterplot.
• The Pearson coefficient is commonly used to show correlation.
• The correlation coefficient is denoted by ᵧ

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The positive, negative, and random correlations are given in Figure 5.1.
• In positive correlation, one variable change is associated with the change in another
variable.
• In negative correlation, the relationship between the variables is reciprocal while in
random correlation, no relationship exists between variables.

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Regression and Causation

• Causation is about causal relationship among variables, say x and y.

• Causation means knowing whether x causes y to happen or vice versa.

• x causes y is often denoted as x implies y.

• Correlation and Regression relationships are not same as causation relationship.

• For example, the correlation between economical background and marks scored does not
imply that economic background causes high marks.

• Similarly, the relationship between higher sales of cool drinks due to a rise in temperature
is not a causal relation. Even though high temperature is the cause of cool drinks sales, it
depends on other factors too. Prof. Salma Itagi,Dept. of CSE, SVIT 27
Linearity and Non- Linearity

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Types of Regression

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Types of Regression
• Linear Regression: It is a type of regression where a line is fitted upon given data for
finding the linear relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable
to describe relationships.
• Multiple Regression :It is a type of regression where a line is fitted for finding the linear
relationship between two or more independent variables and one dependent variable to
describe relationships among variables.
• Polynomial Regression :It is a type of non-linear regression method of describing relation-
ships among variables where Nth degree polynomial is used to model the relationship
between one independent variable and one dependent variable. Polynomial multiple
regression is used to model two or more independent variables and one dependent variable.
• Logistic Regression: It is used for predicting categorical variables that involve one or more
independent variables and one dependent variable. This is also known as a binary classifier.
• Lasso and Ridge Regression Methods: These are special variants of regression method
where regularization methods are used to limit the number and size of coefficients of the
independent variables.
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Limitations of Regression

1. Outliers - Outliers are abnormal data. It can bias the outcome of the regression model, as
outliers push the regression line towards it.

2. Number of cases - The ratio of independent and dependent variables should be at least 20 :
For every explanatory variable, there should be at least 20 samples. Atleast five samples are
required in extreme cases.

3. Missing data - Missing data in training data can make the model unfit for the sampled data.
4. Multicollinearity - If exploratory variables are highly correlated (0.9 and above), the
regression is vulnerable to bias. Singularity leads to perfect correlation of 1. The remedy is to
remove exploratory variables that exhibit correlation more than 1. If there is a tie, then the
tolerance (1-R squared) is used to eliminate variables that have the greatest value.
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Introduction to Linear Regression

The assumptions of linear regression are listed as follows:

1. The observations (y) are random and are mutually independent.
2. The difference between the predicted and true values is called an error. The error is also
mutually independent with the same distributions such as normal distribution with zero
mean and constant variables.
3. The distribution of the error term is independent of the joint distribution of explanatory
variables. Prof. Salma Itagi,Dept. of CSE, SVIT 32
ꞵ1

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Introduction to Linear Regression(cont..,)
4. The unknown parameters of the regression models are
[Link] idea of linear regression is based on
Ordinary Least Square (OLS) approach. This method is
also known as ordinary least squares method.
• In this method, the data points are modelled using a
straight line. Any arbitrarily drawn line is not an
optimal line.
• In Figure 5.4, three data points and their errors (e1, e2, e3) are shown. The vertical distance between each point
and the line (predicted by the approximate line equation y = a + ax) is called an error.
• These individual errors are added to compute the total error of the predicted line. This is called sum of
residuals.
• The squares of the individual errors can also be computed and added to give a sum of squared error. The line
with the lowest sum of squared error is called line of best fit.

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Introduction to Linear Regression(cont..,)

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Introduction to Linear Regression(cont..,)

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Introduction to Linear Regression(cont..,)

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Example

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Linear Regression in Matrix form

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Multiple Linear Regression

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Example Scenario

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 Polynomial Regression

If the relationship between the independent and dependent variables

is not linear, then linear regression cannot be used as it will result in
large errors. The problem of non-linear regression can be solved by
two methods:
1. Transformation of non-linear data to linear data, so that the linear
regression can handle the data.
2. Using polynomial regression.

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Polynomial Regression(cont..,)

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Polynomial Regression (cont..,)

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Polynomial Regression (cont..,)

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Logistic Regression

• Linear regression predicts the numerical response but is not suitable for predicting the categorical variables.

• When categorical variables are involved, it is called classification problem. Logistic regression is suitable for

binary classification problem. Here, the output is often a categorical variable. For example, the following

scenarios are instances of predicting categorical variables.

1. Is the mail spam or not spam? The answer is yes or no. Thus, categorical dependant variable is a binary

response of yes or no.

2. If the student should be admitted or not is based on entrance examination marks. Here, categorical variable

response is admitted or not.

3. The student being pass or fail is based on marks secured.

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Sigmoid activation function is used

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CHAPTER 3
Decision Tree Learning: Introduction to Decision Tree Learning Model, Decision
Tree Induction Algorithms.
Chapter-6 (6.1, 6.2)

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 Introduction to Decision Tree
Learning
• Decision tree learning model, one of the most popular supervised predictive
learning models, classifies data instances with high accuracy and consistency.
• The model performs an inductive inference that reaches a general conclusion
from observed examples.
• This model is variably used for solving complex classification applications.
• Decision tree is a concept tree which summarizes the information contained in
the training dataset in the form of a tree structure.
• Once the concept model is built, test data can be easily classified.

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• This model can be used to classify both categorical target variables and
continuous-valued target variables. Given a training dataset X, this model
computes a hypothesis function f(X) as decision tree.
• Inputs to the model are data instances or objects with a set of features or
attributes which can be discrete or continuous and the output of the model is a
decision tree which predicts or the target class for the test data object.
• In statistical terms, attributes or features are called as independent
variables. The target feature or target class is called as response variable
which indicates the category we need to predict a test object.
• The decision tree learning model generates a complete hypothesis space in the
form of a tree structure with the given training dataset and allows us to search
through the possible set of hypotheses which in fact would be a smaller
decision tree as we walk through the tree.
• This kind of search bias is called as preference bias.
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 Structure of a Decision Tree
• A decision tree has a structure that consists of a root node, internal
nodes/decision nodes, branches, and terminal nodes/leaf nodes.
• The topmost node in the tree is the root node.
• Internal nodes are the test nodes and are also called as decision nodes.
• These nodes represent a choice or test of an input attribute and the outcome or
outputs of the test condition are the branches emanating from this decision node.
• The branches are labelled as per the outcomes or output values of the test
condition.
• Each branch represents a sub-tree or subsection of the entire tree.

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Structure of a Decision
Tree(cont..,)
• Every decision node is part of a path to a leaf node.
• The leaf nodes represent the labels or the outcome of a decision path.
• The labels of the leaf nodes are the different target classes a data
instance can belong to.
• Every path from root to a leaf node represents a logical rule that
corresponds to a conjunction of test attributes and the whole tree
represents a disjunction of these conjunctions.
• The decision tree model, in general, represents a collection of logical
rules of classification in the form of a tree structure.

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 Structure of a Decision
Tree(cont..,)
• Decision networks, otherwise called as
influence diagrams, have a directed
graph structure with nodes and links.
• Figure 6.1 shows symbols that are used
in this book to represent different nodes
in the construction of a decision tree.
• A circle is used to represent a root
node, a diamond symbol is used to
represent a decision node or the
internal nodes, and all leaf nodes are
represented with a rectangle.
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 Building the Tree
• Goal Construct a decision tree with the given training dataset.
• The tree is constructed in a top-down fashion.
• It starts from the root node.
• At every level of tree construction, we need to find the best split attribute or best
decision node among all attributes.
• This process is recursive and continued until we end up in the last level of the tree
or finding a leaf node which cannot be split further.
• The tree construction is complete when all the test conditions lead to a leaf node.
The leaf node contains the target class or output of classification.
Output :Decision tree representing the complete hypothesis space.
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Knowledge Inference or
Classification
• Goal :Given a test instance, infer to the target class it belongs to.
• Classification: Inferring the target class for the test instance or object is based on
inductive inference on the constructed decision tree.
• In order to classify an object, we need to start traversing the tree from the root.
• We traverse as we evaluate the test condition on every decision node with the test
object attribute value and walk to the branch corresponding to the test's outcome.
• This process is repeated until we end up in a leaf node which contains the target
class of the test object.
• Output: Target label of the test instance.

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 Advantages of Decision Trees
1. Easy to model and interpret.

2. Simple to understand.

3. The input and output attributes can be discrete or continuous predictor

variables.

4. Can model a high degree of nonlinearity in the relationship between the

target variables and the predictor variables.

5. Quick to train.
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 Disadvantages of Decision Tress
Some of the issues that generally arise with a decision tree learning are that:
1. It is difficult to determine how deeply a decision tree can be grown or when to stop
growing it.
2. If training data has errors or missing attribute values, then the decision tree
constructed may become unstable or biased.
3. If the training data has continuous valued attributes, handling it is computationally
complex and has to be discretized.
4. A complex decision tree may also be over-fitting with the training data.
5. Decision tree learning is not well suited for classifying multiple output classes.
6. Learning an optimal decision tree is also known to be NP-complete.
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Entropy

• Entropy is the amount of uncertainty or randomness in the outcome of a

random variable or an event.
• Moreover, entropy describes about the homogeneity of the data
instances.
• The best feature is selected based on the entropy value.
• For example, when a coin is flipped, head or tail are the two outcomes,
hence its entropy is lower when compared to rolling a dice which has got
six outcomes.
• Hence, the interpretation is,
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 Decision Tree Induction
Algorithms
• There are many decision tree algorithms, such as ID3, C4.5, CART, CHAID, QUEST, GUIDE,
CRUISE, and CTREE, that are used for classification in real-time environment.
• The most commonly used decision tree algorithms are ID3 (Iterative Dichotomizer 3), developed
by J.R Quinlan in 1986, and C4.5 is an advancement of ID3 presented by the same author in 1993.
CART, that stands for Classification and Regression Trees, is another algorithm which was
developed by Breiman et al. in 1984.
• The accuracy of the tree constructed depends upon the selection of the best split attribute.
• Different algorithms are used for building decision trees which use different measures to decide on
the splitting criterion.
• Algorithms such as ID3, C4.5 and CART are popular algorithms used in the construction of
decision trees.
• The algorithm ID3 uses 'Information Gain' as the splitting criterion whereas the algorithm C4.5
uses 'Gain Ratio' as the splitting criterion.
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Decision Tree Induction
Algorithms(cont..,)
• The CART algorithm is popularly used for classifying both categorical
and continuous-valued target variables. CART uses GINI Index to
construct a decision tree.
• Decision trees constructed using ID3 and C4.5 are also called as
univariate decision trees which consider only one feature/attribute to
split at each decision node whereas decision trees constructed using
CART algorithm are multivariate decision trees which consider a
conjunction of univariate splits.

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 ID3 Tree Construction
• ID3 is a supervised learning algorithm which uses a training dataset with labels and
constructs a decision tree.
• ID3 is an example of univariate decision trees as it considers only one feature at each
decision node.
• This leads to axis-aligned splits.
• The tree is then used to classify the future test instances.
• It constructs the tree using a greedy approach in a top-down fashion by identifying the
best attribute at each level of the tree.
• ID3 works well if the attributes or features are considered as discrete/categorical
values.
• If some attributes are continuous, then we have to partition attributes or features to be
discretized or nominal attributes or features.
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 ID3 Tree Construction (Cont..,)
• The algorithm builds the tree using a purity measure called 'Information Gain' with the
given training data instances and then uses the constructed tree to classify the test data.
• It is applied for training set with only nominal attributes or categorical attributes and
with no missing values for classification.
• ID3 works well for a large dataset. If the dataset is small, overfitting may occur.
Moreover, it is not accurate if the dataset has missing attribute values.
• No pruning is done during or after construction of the tree and it is prone to outliers.
C4.5 and CART can handle both categorical attributes and continuous attributes.
• Both C4.5 and CART can also handle missing values, but C4.5 is prone to outliers
whereas CART can handle outliers as well.

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 C4.5 Constructions
• C4.5 is an improvement over ID3.
• C4.5 works with continuous and discrete attributes and missing values, and it also
supports post-pruning.
• C5.0 is the successor of C4.5 and is more efficient and used for building smaller
decision trees.
• C4.5 works with missing values by marking as '?', but these missing attribute values
are not considered in the calculations.
• The algorithm C4.5 is based on Occam's Razor which says that given two correct
solutions, the simpler solution has to be chosen.
• Moreover, the algorithm requires a larger training set for better accuracy.
• It uses Gain Ratio as a measure during the construction of decision trees.
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 C4.5 Constructions(cont..,)
• ID3 is more biased towards attributes with larger values.
• For example, if there is an attribute called 'Register No' for students it would be unique for every
student and will have distinct value for every data instance resulting in more values for the attribute.
• Hence, every instance belongs to a category and would have higher Information Gain than other
attributes.
• To overcome this bias issue, C4.5 uses a purity measure Gain ratio to identify the best split attribute.
• In C4.5 algorithm, the Information Gain measure used in ID3 algorithm is normalized by
computing another factor called Split_Info.
• This normalized information gain of an attribute called as Gain_Ratio is computed by the ratio of the
calculated Split_Info and Information Gain of each attribute.
• Then, the attribute with the highest normalized information gain, that is, highest gain ratio is used as
the splitting criteria.

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C4.5 Example

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 Classification and Regression tree
constructions
• The Classification and Regression Trees (CART) algorithm is a multivariate decision tree learning
used for classifying both categorical and continuous-valued target variables.
• CART algorithm is an example of multivariate decision trees that gives oblique splits. It solves both
classification and regression problems.
• If the target feature is categorical, it constructs a classification tree and if the target feature is
continuous, it constructs a regression tree.
• CART uses GINI Index to construct a decision tree.
• GINI Index is defined as the number of data instances for a class or it is the proportion of instances.
• It constructs the tree as a binary tree by recursively splitting a node into two nodes.
• Therefore, even if an attribute has more than two possible values, GINI Index is calculated for all
subsets of the attributes and the subset which has maximum value is selected as the best split

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Regression Trees

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