SUPERSTRUCTURES

Unit II
 Contents
• Selection of main bridge parameters
• Choices of superstructure types
• Load distribution theories
• Design Methodologies
– Orthotropic plate theory
– Grillage analysis
– Finite element analysis
• Different types of superstructure (RCC and PSC)
• Longitudinal and Transverse analysis
The following factors are considered for selecting the type of bridge superstructures:

• The nature of river or stream

• Nature of foundation available
• The amount and type of traffic
• Whether used for navigation purposes
• Climatic conditions
• Hydraulic data
• Type of available construction material
• Labour available
• Available facilities for erection
• Maintenance provisions
• Availability of fund
• Time of construction
• Strategic consideration
• Economic consideration
• Aesthetic consideration
 Choice of superstructure
Based on type of material used:
• Timber bridges: temporary and low cost
• Masonry bridges: Not a low cost bridge, used for moderate span 3m to 15m.
• RCC bridges:
– Slab bridges: span upto 8m.
– Girder bridges: span 10 to 20m
– Balanced cantilever bridge: span 35m to 60m
– Arch bridges: span upto 200m
• PSC bridges: uses segmental construction means long span bridge without staging
below. Span 30 to 120m.
• Iron and steel bridges:
– Plate girder bridges: built up beam to carry heavier load over longer spans
– Box girder: adopted to composite construction, shallow depth of superstructure.
• Composite bridges
Based on types of Superstructure:
• Beam Bridge: consists of one or more horizontal beams supported by piers or
abutments at each end. Beam bridges are typically used for shorter spans, and can
be made from a variety of materials, including wood, steel and concrete.
• Arch Bridge: consists of a curved arch that spans an open space and supports the
weight of the bridge and any traffic or loads that cross it. (stone, brick, steel and
concrete)
• Truss Bridge: consists of a series of interconnected triangles, which provide
strength and stability to the bridge. (wood, steel and concrete.)
• Suspension Bridge: consists of two tall towers connected by a horizontal deck,
which is supported by cables that hang from the towers. Suspension bridges are
often used for longer spans (>600m). (steel, concrete and composite material)
• Cable-Stayed Bridge: supported by cables that run directly from the bridge deck to
towers that are anchored to the ground. The cables are arranged in a fan-like
pattern, with multiple cables radiating out from the tower and connecting to
specific points on the bridge deck.
• Cantilever Bridge: supported on one end by a pier or abutment and on the other
end by a cantilever, which is a long beam that extends out from the pier or
abutment. Cantilever bridges can be used for longer spans. (steel and concrete)
Beam Bridge
Truss Bridge

Cable Stayed Bridge

Suspension Bridge
 Load Distribution Theory

1. Courbon’s Theory
2. Hendry-Jaegar Method
3. Guyon-Massonet Method
 Courbon’s Theory
• It is the simplest and is applicable when the following conditions are satisfied:
a) The span /width of deck = 2 to 4
b) the longitudinal girders are interconnected by at least five cross girders.
c) The depth of cross girder = 0.75 times the depth of the longitudinal girders
• The center of gravity of live load acts eccentrically with the center of gravity of the
girder system. Due to this eccentricity, the loads shared by each girder is increased or
decreased depending upon the position of the girders. This is calculated by courbon
theory by a reaction factor given by,

Ri = (W/n)[1+(∑I / ∑ d2 .I) *d*e ]

W= total live load (kN)

n=number of girders
I=moment of inertial of longitudinal girder
e=eccentricity of the live load
d= distance of girder from the axis of the bridge.
• The LL BM and SF are computed for each girder. The max BM and SF are obtained
by adding the LL and DL values. The r/f in main longitudinal girder is designed for
max BM and SF.
• The cross girders are assumed to be rigid, so that the reactions due to DL and LL
are assumed to be equally shared by the cross girders.
 Hendry-Jaegar Method
• Assumes that the cross beams can be replaced in the analysis by a uniform
continuous transverse medium of equivalent stiffness.
• According to this method, the distribution of loading in an interconnected bridge
deck system depends on the following three dimensionless parameters.
A= (12/π4 ) x (L/h)3 x (nEIT/EI)
F=(π2/2n) x (h/L) x (CJ/EIT)
C = EI1/EI2
Where L= the span of the bridge
h=spacing of longitudinal girders
n=number of cross beams
EI, CJ=flexural and torsional rigidities of longitudinal girder
EIT=flexural rigidity of one cross beam
• A represents a function of ratio of span to the spacing of longitudinal girders and
ratio of transverse to longitudinal flexural rigidity.
• F represents ratio of torsional to flexural rigidity of longitudinal and cross girders.
• They have presented a graph giving the value of distribution coefficient for
different number of longitudinal girders (2-6) and for F = 0 and F = ꝏ.
 Guyon-Massonet Method
• The deck is treated as orthotropic.
• This method has the advantage of using a single set of distribution co-efficient for the
two extreme cases of no torsion grillage and a full torsion slab.
• The longitudinal BM at various points along the c/s is obtained by multiplying the
mean BM by appropriate distribution coefficients.
Design BM = (1.10 x K x Mmean x I.F.)
K=distribution co-efficient (which is depends on flexural parameter and torsional parameters)
1.1 is used to compensate the error due to considering only first term of fourier series.
I.F = Impact Factor
K= K0 + (K1 – K0) √α,
The distribution coefficients Ko and K1 are obtained from the no-torsion and torsion graphs
• The equation of transverse moment for a concentrated load W at a distance u from
the left support is given by
My=Wb/a [μ θsin(∏u/2a)- μ3θ sin(3∏u/2a)+ μ5θ sin(5∏u/2a)+-----]
• If there is uniformly distributed load p acting over a distance 2C then
My=4pb/∏ [μ θ sin (∏C/2a)+ (1/3) μ3θ sin(3∏C/2a)+ (1/5) μ5θ sin(5∏C/2a)+---]
μ θ, μ3θ, μ5θ are distribution coefficients corresponding to the flexural parameters
θ,3 θ and 5θ.
 Methods of analysis
• Yield line method
• Westergaard theory
• Influence line
• Grillage analogy
• Orthotropic plate theory
• Folded plate method
• Finite element and finite strip method
 Grillage Method of Analysis
• Essentially a computer-aided method for analysis of bridge decks.
• The deck is idealized as a series of ‘beam’ elements (or grillages), connected and
restrained at their joints. Load and supports may be applied at these joints.
• One Dimensional Beam Elements are used to define the beams in two directions to
simulate the longitudinal as well as the transverse stiffness of the bridge
• Each element is given an equivalent flexural and torsional stiffness to represent the
portion of the deck which it replaces.
• Slab longitudinal stiffness are concentrated in longitudinal beams; transverse stiffness
in transverse beams.
• For equilibrium in slab, the torque should be identical in orthogonal directions. Twist is
same in orthogonal directions but not in equivalent grillage unless the mesh is very
fine.
• The Structure Stiffness matrix is formed using the usual techniques of Matrix Structural
Analysis or the Finite Element. The solutions of the problem consists of finding the
values of the displacements which must be applied to all joints and supports to restore
equilibrium.
• There are essentially five steps to be followed for obtaining design responses:
– Idealization of physical deck into equivalent grillage
– Evaluation of equivalent elastic inertia of members of grillage
– Application and transfer of loads to various nodes of grillage
– Determination of force responses and design envelopes and
– Interpretation of results.
General features :
• The ratio of spacing of transverse and longitudinal grid lines = 1 to 2. (This spacing
ratio may also reflect the span width ratio of the deck)
• A minimum of 7 transverse grid lines are recommended, including end grid lines.
Total number of lines be odd (to achieve a member at mid span). Total number of
longitudinal members varies depending on width of deck.
• Orientation of longitudinal members should be parallel to free edges. Transverse
members should be parallel to supports or orthogonal to longitudinal beams.
• For Small Skew Angle (<35o) Skew Mesh may be adopted without loss of much
accuracy. For Skew Angles >35o Orthogonal Mesh should be adopted.
 Finite Element Method
• The finite element method involves subdividing the actual structure into a suitable
number of sub-regions that are called finite elements. These elements can be in the
form of line elements, two dimensional elements and three-dimensional elements to
represent the structure.
• The intersections between the elements are called nodal points in 1D problem. In 2D
and 3D problems are called nodal line and nodal planes respectively. At the nodes,
degrees of freedom are assigned.
• Models which use displacements are called Displacement models and some models
use stresses defined at the nodal points as unknown and are called equilibrium or Force
models, while those based on combinations of both displacements and stresses are
termed mixed models or hybrid models.
• Finite element needs more time and efforts in modeling than the grillage. The results
obtained from the finite element method depend on the mesh size but by optimization
of the mesh the results of this method are considered more accurate than grillage.
 Orthotropic Plate Method
• The finite element methods require discretized modeling of the structure and
usually generate large volume of output data. Also, they require extensive input.
• In the orthotropic plate model, 2D plate elements are used to simulate the slab that
actually represents more realistic slab behavior and give more reliable results.
• The desired structural responses such as shears, moments and deflections are
obtained using elastic theory of plate bending.
• An orthotropic plate is defined as an equivalent plate having different elastic
properties in two orthogonal directions.
• The modeling of a typical bridge deck involves two phases: the idealization of
wheel loads, and the transformation of the deck structure to an equivalent
mathematical model.
• Idealization of wheel loads: Wheel loads are transformed into equivalent
continuous forms by using harmonic or Fourier series. It is desirable to avoid point
loads and represent concentrated loads as patch load (the responses are
discontinuous under a point load). A uniformly distributed load of partial length u
on a simply supported beam is represented by the following equation.
• Idealization of bridge deck: The response of deck structure at a given point is then
obtained using elastic bending theories of plates and beams. The longitudinal
flexural and torsional rigidities are assumed uniformly distributed across the bridge
length and width.
• A small rectangular element of an orthotropic plate subjected to external loading p
(x,y) is show in Figure along with the shear, bending moments and twisting
moments at its edges. w-deflection
 RCC and PSC bridges
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGE
adaptability to wide variety of structural shapes large dead weight
Low maintenance cost difficulty to widen
Continuous and monolithic longer construction time
good seismic resistance. requires formwork and false work
Long life and better resistance to temporary
overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
desired aesthetic appearance.
Slab bridge
• commonly used for short span upto 12m. Slab may be of uniform thickness or Voided.
• Requires more concrete and reinforced steel than Girder Bridge of same span but the
formwork is simpler and less expensive.
• The load carrying mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to
continuity in all directions.

T-girder bridge
• Used for bridges spanning from about 10meters-25 meters.
• They consist of equally spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8-3.6m) spanning
longitudinally between supports. The slab is structurally continuous across the top.
• The slab serves dual purpose of supporting the live load on the bridge and acting as
the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
• Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and
depending on the span, at mid-span and other intermediate locations. Diaphragms
ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent stringers.
• Design consists of deck slab analysis & design, and the T- girder analysis & design.
Box girder bridge
• Economical for spans of above 25 to 45m and for span > 45m will have to be
Prestressed.
• They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all
interconnected by a common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure.
• The top slab, webs and bottom slab are built monolithically to act as a unit, which
means that full shear transfer must be provided between all parts of the section.
• They have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape and are particularly
suitable for structures with significant curvature.
Continuous bridge
• Less number of bearings and expansion joints than simply supported bridge
• Reduced width of pier and Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
• Analysis is laborious and time consuming
• Not suitable on yielding foundations
Rigid frame bridges
• the deck is rigidly connected to the bridge and piers. All the advantages of a
continuous span bridge and rigid frame bridges are present here.
• Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members. No
bearings are required
 Design of slab bridges
• Step 1: Determination of depth of slab
Max (l/d and 80mm/m of span)

• Step 2: Calculation of effective span

Min[(clear span + effective depth) or c-c of bearing]

• Step 3: Bending Moment due to dead load and live load

DL of slab and wearing coat
LL due to class AA tracked vehicle placed at centre

• Step 4: Design of main reinforcement steel

Mu = 0.87 fy Ast d [ 1 – Ast fy] provide 20mm dia bars
b d fck
• Step 5: Providing distribution reinforcement
Transverse moment = 0.3Mul + 0.2Mud provide 12mm dia bars

• Step 6: Check for shear

Place load at support find shear force. Design ultimate SF = 1.35Vd + 1.5Vl
Design shear resistance Vrd = 0.12k(80 þfck)0.33bd