Fatigue

Fracture
 Fatigue
 Fatigue: English word, come from Latin
verb “Fatigare” means tire out or be
exhausted
What is the
Noticed in 19Message
th
century, for R &Rail
German D
Engineer Wöhler gave important advice
Engineer from This Figure ????

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  Fatigue is brittle fracture
 But, similar to static load, there is
plastic zone ahead of growing crack

 Three basic factors: i) sharp corner, ii)

notch or tool marks and iii) stress
concentrators; inclusion/carbide
 Fatigue fracture surface very different load,
there is plastic zone ahead of growing crack 3
  Fatigue usually starts from surface

 Tool marks, inclusion, sharp edge act as

stress raiser

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Common Type Fracture Surface

As a Failure Analyst, What is

Your Instant Comment on This
Fracture Morphologies ????

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  For all general cases, crack
initiates, moves and final fracture

Like Fast Fracture in 2nd World War in Lots of

Welded Steel Structures Many Serious
Fatigue Failures 6
 Contribution of FM in FF
FM
 Telling Us:
Many accident in welded ships, tankers,
a)Residual strength as function of crack size?
steel structure buildings, FM helped a lot
b)MaxCommon Features:
permissible crack Material
size to avoid lost
accident?
toughness, fractures started from flaws
c)Time to grow crack from a minimum detectable
Cracks forms, propagate, lose remaining
crack size to permissible
load carrying capacity
d) Service life of structure with crack-like flaw?

e) Crack detection monitoring interval

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 FM Change People Perception
All Components Have Defects; Either Detectable or
Not Detectable

If ad to acr known, by LEFM/EPFM time/N for ad

to acr: calculated via da/dN versus K (ΔK = Kmax
– Kmin. Crack growth rate very important to
replace parts before acr rand avoid accident 8
 Fatigue Curve: S-N Curve
Steel/Ti Alloys Show EL, But Not Other NF Alloys

1x108 or 5x108, 40% of the UTS

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 FL is Statistical Quantity

 For confident decision around 1000

samples need to be tested
 Earlier concept: FL is material property??

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Structural Features in Fatigue

 Slip bands form within few 1000 cycles

and crack forms parallel to original slip
lines

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Fatigue Data in Component Design
 Lots of Parameters: Science, engg, flight
fly, automobile run, profit stock holders
and so on.
 Engineering: May or may not as per
science, but problem must solve. There are
various methods.
Fatigue Life Method
I) stress-life, II) strain-life and III) LEFM.
These methods attempt to predict FL cycle;
1 ≤ N ≤ 103 for LCF, N > 103 cycles for HCF.
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 Stress Life Method
 Depends on test data, least accurate

For fatigue min 1 stress cycle, application +

removal load, N=½, not fatigue, only loading
LCF: Strain in Every Cycle
 Applications: aeronautics, architecture,
boilers, building under earthquake, etc with
finite fatigue life
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 LCF
Transition in LCF/HCF is transition
in E/P deformation, no fixed
transition life (103), depends on
material’s ductility

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 LCF
Coffin-Mason
LCF test results relation
is plotted plastic strain
range p against N, straight line is obtained,
known as Coffin-Mason relation

εp/2 = plastic strain amplitude

εf = fatigue ductility
coefficient
c = Ductility exponent, -0.5 to -0.7 15
 Strain Life Method
 Best Method: For fatigue fracture, there
must a crack, which is formed when plastic
strain occurs

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 Strain Life Method

Legitimate equation for FL when strain and

other cyclic characteristics are given

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 LEFM

 Stage I: Several olled

grains, controlled by
inclusions/surface defect, da/dN in angstrom
 Stage II: Stable and orderly growth,
micron range, striation marks
 Stage III: No true F feature, fails at KI = KIC
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 Fatigue Crack Growth
 Fluctuating stress: σmin and σmax, stress
range σ = σmax − σmin, as FM theory, KI =
βσ√(πa). For σ, stress intensity range:

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Region II follows
 da/dN vs KLEFM
curve is different,
sigmoidal curve

 Paris provided
simplified equation

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40-60% of UTS up to about 210kpsi (1450
Fatigue
MPa). Sut = 210kpsi scatterLimit
increases
 Very lengthy process, but essential

 Rough relationship between FL and UTS

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 Se Modifying Factors
 Fatigue sample preparation and test is
done very carefully
Se = kakbkckdkekfSe
 But, lab situation and service life
different, lots of uncertainties
ka = surface condition modification factor
kb = size modification factor
kc = load modification factor
kd = temperature modification factor
ke = reliability factor
kf = miscellaneous-effects modification factor
Se = rotating bend test endurance limit factor
Se = endurance limit at the critical location of a
machine part in the geometry and condition of use
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 Surface Factor
Sut = Min UTS
Table 2 a, b constant

Size Factor: From Round to Other by Equiv. Vol.

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 Size Factor
In rotating bend 95% stress area corresponds to area of dia
d – whole of dia 0.95d

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Factor for Type of Loading, kc
Axial, bending or torsional

Temperature Factor, kd

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 Factor for Type of Loading, ke
ke = 1 − 0.08za

ke = 1 − 0.08za

Miscellaneous-Effects Factor kf

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Surface Finish

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 Surface rolling: Favourable, no roughness,
higher depth than SP

 Flame/induction hardening, carburizing

or nitriding improves fatigue life

 Ni/Cr plating impairs FL

 Good from plating of Cd, Zn, Sn, Pb, Sn,

 Favourable for bending-bending, but not

for axial T-C loading unnotched part.
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Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
 Holes, grooves, or notches, surface
roughness, inclusion/carbide particles
increase effective stresses: Established
Facts
 In this regard, some materials are very
sensitive, some are not fully sensitive.
 Correction stress concentration factor
(Kt) is required

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 q is notch sensitivity, varies 0-1

 If q = 0, then Kf = 1, material has no

sensitivity to notches at all

 If q = 1, then Kf = Kt, material is full

sensitive

 Neuber Equation:

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31
Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stress

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Steady/static stress is not σm , value between σmin and σmax a
fixed preload, independent of varying portion, load on
helical compression spring created by initial compression
is static load 33
 Goodman Diagram
 In most research, conditions of
completely reversed cycles of stress, m = 0
is used, but real life is different

For fixed σa, F life decreases with σm, σf, static

fracture stress, for σm = 0, σa is max, equal to
σf. For σa = σf, F life is ¼ of a cycle, now σa +
σm ≤ σf, not valid to right of line AB. σm= σf/3,
then maximum allowable stress = 2σ /3. 34
Modified Goodman Diagram

MG diagram consists of
the lines constructed to
Se (or Sf) above and
below origin.

MG Diagram: σm along abscissa, other

stresses on ordinate, tension in
+direction. Midrange stress line in 45o
from origin to the Su of the part. 35
Other way to display data is by ratio of Sm/Sut, T to
right, CS to left, ordinate is ratio of Sa/S’e

BC shows modified Goodman criterion of failure.

Sm in compressive region has little effect on S’e,

failure occurs whenever σa = Se or whenever σmax =
Syc, as indicated by the left-hand side of Fig.48. 36
 Other Clever Diagram:
Displays 4 stress
components + 2
stress ratios.

A curve representing the endurance limit for values

of R beginning at R = −1 and ending with R = 1
begins at Se on the σa axis and ends at Sut on the σm
axis. 37
 At A: σmin = 20, σmax
= 120, σm = 70, σa =
50, in kpsi.
Constant life curves for
N = 105 and N = 104
Any stress state, at any
point as A can be
described by midrange and
alternating components

And safety is indicated whenever the point

described by the stress components lies below the
constant life line.
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39
 nσa and nσm can replace Sa and Sm,
if n is factor of safety

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Problem: A 1.5 in diameter bar has been machined from an AISI 1050
cold-drawn bar of ultimate tensile strength 100kpsi and yield strength
84kpsi. This part is to withstand a fluctuating tensile load varying from 0
to 16 kip. Because of the ends, and the fillet radius, a fatigue stress-
concentration factor Kf is 1.85 for 106 or larger life. Find Sa and Sm and the
factor of safety guarding against fatigue and first-cycle yielding, using (a)
the Gerber fatigue line and (b) the ASME-elliptic fatigue line.
Note that Fa = Fm = 8 kip.
The Marin factors are, deterministically, ka = 2.70(100)−0.265 =
0.797: Eq.11, Table 6–2
kb = 1 (axial loading), kc = 0.85: Eq.26, kd = ke = kf = 1
Se = 0.797(1)0.850(1)(1)(1)0.5(100) = 33.9 kpsi: Eqs.9 and 10
The nominal axial stress components σao and σmo are:

Applying Kf to both components σao and σmo constitutes a

prescription of no notch yielding:
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(a) Let us calculate the factors of safety first. From
bottom panel of Table 7 the factor of safety for fatigue is:

From Eq.47 the factor of safety guarding against first-

cycle yield is:

Thus, we see that fatigue will occur first and the factor of
safety is 3.68. This can be seen from the following Figure,
where the load line intersects the Gerber fatigue curve
first at point B.
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  UTS 100kpsi, YS 84kpsi.

Sa = Sy − Sm = 84 − 64 = 20 kpsi
As a check on the previous result, nf = OB/OA = Sa/σa = Sm/σm =
30.7/8.38 = 3.66 and we see total agreement.
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 Crack Closure

 An accidental discovery by Elber in 1970

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Five Mechanisms of Crack Closure

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46
 GS on Fatigue Crack Growth Rate
 Coarse-grained material, higher surface
roughness, higher closure loads, lower fatigue
crack propagation

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Fatigue in Variable Amplitude Loading
 Most research data on fixed amplitude,
real data is different, complex amplitude
condition

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Why Crack Tip Condition Important

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Situation in 2nd Cycle

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 Effects of Overload
 CRS by overload, plasticity-induced
closure, reduce Kmax, retard CWR, but not
immediately after OL

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52
 Quantitative Value of FL in VACL

 At σ1, life 150 cycles, at σ2 300, at A and C 100% life,

from A to B or C to D, material exhaustion, at B and D
100%

 Each cycle causes damage, A to E, 1/3 exhaustion,

from E to F means 50 to 100 cycles, 200 cycles available
at σ2

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 n1, n2, n3, n4, etc. The total life for each of these blocks
is, respectively, N1, N2, N3, N4, etc.

 No health abuse, 100 years, ten years smoking, ten

years no smoking, life shortened to 75.
Palmgren-Miner Rule

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 GS on Fatigue Crack Growth Rate
 Coarse-grained material, higher surface
roughness, higher closure loads, lower fatigue
crack propagation

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