Internal Combustion Engine

(ME60111)

Pabitra Badhuk
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kharagpur
Module 2 – SI engines
combustion
Mixture requirement
Air-fuel mixture requirement
An engine is generally operated at different loads and speeds. For this, proper air-fuel mixture should
be supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel and air are mixed to form three different types of mixtures.
For iso-octane, the stoichiometric A/F ratio is close to 15:1 (by mass).
(i) Stoichiometric mixture
(ii) Rich mixture
(iii) Lean mixture
There is, however, a limited range of A/F ratios in a homogeneous mixture, only within which
combustion in an SI engine will occur. Outside this range, the ratio is either too rich or too lean to
sustain flame propagation. This range of useful A/F ratio runs from approximately 9:1 (rich) to 19:1
(lean).

Fig: A/F mixture ratio of gasoline

9 15 19
Engine performance vs A/F ratio at wide-open throttle
Consider an engine operating with wide-open
throttle and constant speed with varying A/F
ratio. Under these conditions, the A/F ratio will
affect both the power output and the brake specific
fuel consumption. The mixture corresponding to the
maximum output on the curve is called the best
power mixture with an A/F ratio of approximately
12.6:1.

The mixture corresponding to the minimum point

on the bsfc curve is called the best economy
mixture. The A/F ratio is approximately 15.4:1. It
may be noted that the best power mixture is much
richer than the chemically correct mixture and the
best economy mixture is slightly leaner than the
chemically correct.

[Link]
Why is a rich mixture suitable for increasing the power output?
Highest combustion temperature and flame propagation speed: The adiabatic flame temperature
and the flame propagation speed is maximum with a slightly rich mixture (), boosting the peak
cylinder pressure.
Improved volumetric efficiency due to charge cooling: In a port
fuel injection system, fuel is injected onto the back of the intake
valve. As the fuel evaporates, it absorbs heat from the surrounding
valve and intake port surfaces — a phenomenon known as charge
cooling. This cooling effect increases the density of the incoming
air-fuel mixture, allowing a greater mass to be inducted during the
intake stroke. This results in higher volumetric efficiency, which
directly contributes to increased power output. A richer mixture
enhances this cooling effect, due to a larger amount of fuel
available for vaporization.
Reduces the tendency of engine knocking: The fuel evaporates
partially in the intake port, partially inside the combustion chamber.
Hence, with rich mixtures, the temperature of the reactants before
combustion is lower due to charge cooling. This helps prevent
knocking in the combustion chamber.
Why does a lean mixture provide improved fuel efficiency?
Higher specific heat ratio: We know that a lean mixture leads to a lower temperature of the
combustion products. Typical variation of with the burnt gas temperature is shown below. We find
that the value of increases as gas temperature reduces. Following the efficiency expression for Otto
cycle , higher leads to a higher thermal efficiency, hence lower specific fuel consumption.

Lower heat loss: A lower combustion temperature also

reduces the heat loss through the piston head, cylinder head
and cylinder walls, boosting fuel efficiency.

Figure: specific heat ratio vs

temperature for burnt products
A/F ratio requirement vs throttle opening

Throttle opening
25 % 75 %

Typical mixture requirements for two operating strategies. The diagram shows the relative air/fuel
ratio variation as a function of load. The two strategies are: A, optimized for maximum torque, part-
load efficiency, and idle stability; B, optimized for emissions reduction—stoichiometric operation.

Rich at low load (idle condition): Improves flame stability.

Lean at mid load (cruise condition): Minimizes fuel consumption.
Rich at high load (power condition): Improved volumetric efficiency due to charge cooling,
reduced knocking tendency, highest flame temperature.
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
In addition to controlling the air-fuel ratio, some engines
may also employ an exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
system. The adjacent image shows a traditional EGR
system. A small fraction of the exhaust gases are directed
back into the intake manifold through a EGR cooler.

The purpose of EGR is to reduce NOx emission when the

engine is operating at cruise condition. NOx emission
increases exponentially with flame temperature. The
recirculated exhaust gases dilute the fresh reactants, and
hence reduce the combustion temperature and NOx
emission.

Two methods for achieving EGR are:

1. Traditional EGR (Shown in the adjacent image)
2. Internal EGR (Exhaust is drawn back into the
[Link]
combustor by simply optimizing the exhaust valve
engineering/exhaust-gas-recirculation
timing)
EGR requirement vs throttle opening

Throttle 10%-20% EGR reduces the combustion

25 % 75 % opening
temperature without affecting the flame
stability. Hence, the NOx emission reduces.

EGR is not recommended during idling

condition to improve the flame stability.

EGR is not recommended during high

Throttle power operation to improve the volumetric
opening
efficiency.
Key takeaways
• The fuel-air mixture is maintained close to stoichiometry in SI engines.

• During idling (low load) and power (high load) slightly rich mixture is preferred ().

• Exhaust gas recirculation is another strategy aimed towards minimizing NOx emissions.

• EGR is preferred under cruising condition. EGR is avoided at idling and power conditions.
Problem 1
Under cruising conditions, a petrol engine operates with an equivalence ratio of 0.9. During high
power requirements, the engine ECU increases the equivalence ratio to 1.15. During the suction
stroke, the engine is only able to fill up to 70% of the displacement volume with the air-fuel mixture
(for both cruise and power conditions). Assuming that the fuel completely vaporizes in the intake port,
calculate the following for both cruise and power conditions.

(a) Volume fraction of air in the fuel-air mixture. Cruise: (a) 0.985, (b) 19.65 K, (c) 73.8%
(b) Temperature of the fuel-air mixture. Power: (a) 0.981, (b) 24.72 K, (c) 74.9%
(c) Volumetric efficiency.

Assume that iso-octane (C8H18) is a surrogate for petrol.

Assume that, fuel-air mixture is an ideal gas. Ambient air is at 1 atm, 298 K.
Cp of fuel-air mixture = 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Latent heat of vaporization of petrol = 350 kJ/kg
Volumetric efficiency is defined as , where is the mass of air inducted during the suction stroke.
Mixture preparation
Objective of mixture preparation
• Provision of an ignitable mixture at the spark plug at the moment of ignition
• Good homogenization of the mixture in the cylinder
• Good dynamic behavior in non-stationary operation
• Low UHC (unburned hydrocarbons) emissions during cold starting
Different fuel injection strategies
Multipoint port fuel Gasoline direct
Single point injection
injection (MPFI) injection (GDI)

Schematics of different fuel-injection system arrangements: (a) single point, (b) multipoint (port), and
(c) direct in-cylinder injection (DI). (1) Fuel; (2) Air; (3) Throttle; (4) Intake manifold; (5) Fuel injector.
Legacy technology - Carburetion

The carburetion technology is functionally similar to a single point injection system. The following
YouTube video nicely demonstrates the working principle of a carburetor.

[Link]
Legacy technology - Carburetion
The carburetion technology is functionally
similar to a single point injection system. The
fuel-air mixture is prepared at one point, and
is distributed to all cylinders via the intake
manifold.

A carburetor works by utilizing the venturi

2 effect. In the adjacent image, section BB has a
smaller cross section compared to section AA.
As a result, air velocity would be higher at
section BB. Following Bernoulli’s principle,
the higher velocity also creates a drop in static
pressure, which allows fuel to flow into the air
passage through the narrow inclined channel.
Thus, an air-fuel mixture is formed which is
then supplied to the engine.
Carburetor – Design features
Fuel strainer: Filters the fuel of impurities.
Float chamber: Holds the fuel before feeding into the air passage
Float: Helps maintain a constant level of fuel in the float chamber
Fuel discharge nozzle: A narrow passage through which fuel is discharged from the float chamber
into the air passage.
Venturi: A blockage in the air passage to create a low-pressure region locally.
Choke valve: During cold start, the combustor requires very rich fuel-air mixture to start the engine
operation. The choke valve facilitates creating a very rich mixture with a low air flow rate. It remains
fully open during normal operation. During cold start, the choke is semi-closed to create a large
pressure drop near the venturi region. Hence, fuel is drawn in from the float chamber to the air
passage and enriches the mixture.
Throttle valve: Controls the air flow rate into the combustor. This valve is controlled dynamically
by the user to adjust power output from the engine. During low power requirement, the air flow is
reduced by closing the throttle valve. During high power requirement, the air flow is increased by
having the throttle valve fully open.
Idling flow line: An additional circuit that directly sends fuel from the float chamber to the air
passage (downstream of the throttle). The purpose is to meet the rich mixture requirement of the
engine during idle condition.
Air fuel ratio calculation
Assume, U1 = 0; air is incompressible (i.e., density changes due to temperature, but not pressure)
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem between sections 1 and 2 gives us,

Applying Bernoulli’s theorem between the fuel free surface and section 2 gives us,

A/F ratio =
Carburetor – shortcomings
• The air and fuel flow rates are interdependent. Hence, cannot easily adjust air-fuel ratio for
varying operating conditions (idle, cruise, power).
• A carburetor-based system leads to higher emissions than an injector-based system, as the air-fuel
ratio cannot be controlled flexibly with a carburetor.
• Modern stringent emission norms (BS6) cannot be met with a carburetor. Specially, UHC and
NOx emissions.
• One carburetor typically feeds multiple cylinders. This causes inhomogeneity across cylinders.
For example, heavier fuel droplets may not reach the furthest cylinders.
Multi-point port fuel injection (MPFI)
 Components of an MPFI system
Fuel flow
1. Hot-film air-mass meter
2. Throttle valve
3. Intake valve
4. Exhaust valve
5. Spark plug
signal 6. Port fuel injector
7. Piston
8. Fuel tank
Air
9. Fuel pump and strainer

Key ECU inputs to determine the

fuel flow rate are:
10. Mass flow rate of air
11. Throttle position
12. Engine RPM
13. Crank angle
Components of an MPFI system – Description
The hot-film air-mass meter is situated upstream of the throttle valve, measures the air-mass flow
entering the intake manifold and sends a corresponding electrical signal to the engine ECU. The ECU
then utilizes the data on intake-air mass and the engine’s current operating state (throttle opening,
engine RPM, crankshaft position etc.) to calculate the required fuel mass.

Fuel rail and fuel injectors

Port fuel injectors

MPFI injection strategy
Only a very small proportion of the introduced
fuel evaporates in the intake manifold when the
engine is cold on account of the low temperature.
The majority of the fuel exists as wall-applied
film and is entrained in the air flow during the
intake phase. The actual mixture preparation takes
place in the cylinder. On the other hand, when the
Intake synchronous injection engine is hot, a large proportion of the injected
fuel spray and some of the existing wall-applied
film already evaporates in the intake manifold.

It is possible with pre-intake injection to achieve

a significant reduction in pollutant emissions
during cold starting. The injected fuel is forced
towards the center of the combustion chamber and
Pre-intake injection the undesired formation of wall-applied film on
the exhaust-side cylinder wall is avoided.
Spray targeting

Central spray targeting onto Optimal spray targeting

inlet valves
The main objective of spray targeting is to reduce the build-up of wall film on the combustor wall
towards the exhaust valve. The wall-film does not combust easily and leads to an increased unburned
HC emission from the engine.
When the spray is targeted at the base of the intake port (optimal spray targeting), the spray is
transported towards the center of the combustion chamber. This further reduces the depositing of fuel
on the exhaust-side cylinder wall (highlighted with red circles in the image), which in turn manifests
itself in lower HC emissions in the starting phase.
Injection strategy with multiple cylinders

Simultaneous fuel injection

(Legacy technology)

Group fuel injection

(Legacy technology)

Sequential fuel injection

(Modern day technology)

Inline cylinder firing sequence: 1-3-4-2

Injection strategy with multiple cylinders

Simultaneous fuel injection

(Legacy technology)

Group fuel injection

(Legacy technology)

Sequential fuel injection

(Modern day technology)

Inline cylinder firing sequence: 1-3-4-2

Injection strategy with multiple cylinders

Simultaneous fuel injection

(Legacy technology)

Group fuel injection

(Legacy technology)

Sequential fuel injection

(Modern day technology)

Inline cylinder firing sequence: 1-3-4-2

 Gasoline direct injection (GDI)
Gasoline direct-injection
engines generate the air/fuel
mixture in the combustion
chamber. During the suction
stroke, only the combustion
air flows through the open
intake valve. The fuel is
injected directly into the
combustion chamber by
special fuel injectors.

The fuel is injected during

the suction stroke. Allowing
sufficient time for the
preparation of a
homogeneous fuel-air
mixture prior to combustion.
MPFI vs GDI – Homogeneous Charge
Feature MPFI GDI – Homogeneous Charge
Fuel Injection Injectors spray fuel into the intake port, Injectors spray fuel directly into the
Location upstream of the intake valve combustion chamber
Occurs inside the cylinder during intake
Mixture Happens partially in the intake port,
stroke; mixture forms just before
Formation partially in the combustion chamber
compression
Volumetric
Similar to GDI Similar to MPFI
Efficiency
Cold Start Good vaporization due to heated intake More challenging—requires special spray
Performance port; easier cold start strategy to aid vaporization
Latent heat for fuel evaporation is supplied
Knock Higher knock resistance due to in-cylinder
partially by the hot intake valve surface.
Resistance charge cooling from fuel evaporation
Hence, in-cylinder charge cooling is lower.
Fuel-film formed on the wall does not Cold start HC lower due to less wall
UHC
combust effectively, especially under cold wetting in the intake port and inside the
Emissions
start conditions, UHC emission is higher. combustor
MPFI vs GDI – Homogeneous Charge
Feature MPFI GDI – Homogeneous Charge
Port fuel injection allows sufficient time for Time available for homogeneous mixture
PM emission homogeneous fuel-air mixture preparation. preparation is lower. So, particulate matter
Hence, particulate matter emission is less. emissions may be higher.
Injector Lower pressure (~3–4 bar); simpler, High pressure (50–200+ bar); expensive
Requirements cheaper injectors and pump
Thermal Lower. Limited by engine knocking. Hence, Higher by 3-4%, better knock suppression
efficiency lower compression ratio allows higher compression ratio.
No fuel washing—prone to intake valve
Intake valve Intake valve gets washed by fuel; hence
carbon buildup, may require periodic
life carbon deposit is less likely.
cleaning.
Air flow inside the combustor
Objectives:
Promote mixing  High turbulence levels help promote mixing
Faster flame propagation  High turbulence levels help in faster flame propagation
Reduce emissions  Enable homogeneous combustion, avoid small crevices
Stable ignition  High turbulence level is not desired near the point of ignition for stability.

Strategies:
swirl, tumble, and squish

ATFT: Advanced tumble flow induction technology

ASFS: Advanced swirl flow induction system Example: Hero Honda CBZ
Example: Hero Honda Glamour
Swirl
What is swirl?
If the flow field inside the combustor is set up in such a manner that the
flow rotates around the axis of the cylinder, it is called a swirl flow.

How is it set up?

Swirl is generated by shaping the intake ports tangentially to the cylinder
axis. This imparts a rotational motion of the charge around the cylinder axis.

Advantage
Promotes fuel-air mixing and ensures combustion stability.

Disadvantage
The intake valve must allow a tangential entry of the charge. This reduces
the axial component of the flow, thus reduces the volumetric efficiency.
Tumble
What is tumble?
If the flow field inside the combustor is set up in such a manner
that the flow rotates around an axis perpendicular to the axis of
the cylinder, it is called a tumble flow.

How is it set up?

Tumble is set up by forcing nonuniform flow through the intake
valve. One side of the valve pushes more mass than the other.

Advantage
Promotes fuel-air mixing and ensures combustion stability.

Disadvantage
As a result of the uneven use of the valve (and port) open area,
the flow resistance of the intake valve and port system is higher
so the engine’s maximum volumetric efficiency is lowered.
Squish
What is squish? Squish
Squish is the name given to the radial or transverse gas motion
that occurs toward the end of the compression stroke (and early
part of the expansion stroke) when a portion of the piston face and
cylinder head approach (or separate from) each other closely.
How is it set up?
When the cylinder head or piston crown surfaces are not flat but
are shaped, this piston-generated axial velocity during
compression and expansion produces transverse or radial flows
due to differences in the axial distance between the cylinder head
and piston crown surfaces across the cylinder cross section.
Advantage
Promotes fuel-air mixing and ensures combustion stability.
Disadvantage
Adds complexity in piston head/cylinder head design. This is only
effective near TDC, so, it needs to be coupled with swirl/tumble
for efficient mixing. Kaplan, Mahmut. International Journal of Automotive
Engineering and Technologies 8.2 (2019): 83-102.
Ignition and Flame
propagation
SI engine combustion

Video taken from Smarter Every Day YT

([Link]
Spark advance angle

Actual
diagram

Detailed process of combustion in actual engine is different from the theoretical process. Combustion
process in an actual SI engine as consisting of three stages:
A shows the point of the passage of the spark (about 20° bTDC), B the point at which the first rise of
the pressure can be seen (about 8° bTDC) and C the attainment of the peak pressure.
AB represent the first stage (Ignition lag)
BC represent the second stage (Propagation of flame)
CD represent the third stage (Afterburning)
Ignition lag
• There is a certain time interval between instant of spark and instant where there is a noticeable rise
in pressure due to combustion. This time lag is called Ignition Lag.
• This stage also known as flame development stage
• Ignition lag is the time interval in the process of chemical reaction during which molecules get
heated up to self ignition temperature, get ignited and produce a self propagating nucleus of flame.
• Ignition lag is very small and lies between 1.5 to 2 milliseconds. An ignition lag of 2 milli seconds
corresponds to 35 deg crank rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM.
• This is a chemical process depending upon the nature of fuel, temperature and pressure,
proportions of exhaust gas and rate of oxidation or burning.
Effect of engine variables on ignition lag
Nature of Fuel: The ignition lag depends on the chemical nature of the fuel. The higher the self-
ignition temperature of the fuel, the longer the ignition lag. For example, petrol has a higher ignition
lag than diesel.
Equivalence ratio: The ignition lag is smallest for the equivalence ratio that gives the maximum
temperature. This ratio is somewhat richer than the stoichiometric ratio.
Initial temperature and pressure: Increasing the intake temperature and pressure, increasing the
compression ratio, all reduce the ignition lag.
Turbulence: Excessive turbulence of the mixture in the
area of spark plug is harmful. Turbulence increases the
heat transfer from the combustion zone and leads to
unstable development of the nucleus of flame.
Flame propagation
• Once the flame is formed, it should be self
sustained and must be able to propagate through
the mixture.
• This is possible when the rate of heat generation
by burning is greater than heat lost by flame to
surrounding.
• The starting point of the second stage is where
first measurable rise of the pressure can be seen
on the indicator diagram.
• This stage is also called as main stage as about
85-90% energy evolved in this stage.
• This stage is influenced by conditions
throughout the combustion chamber
Flame propagation
 A-B: The flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a low flame speed and low turbulence.
About 10% of the entire heat release happens in this phase.
 B-C: The flame front leaves the quiescent zone and proceeds into more turbulent area. It consumes a
greater mass of mixture and it progresses more rapidly and at a constant rate. Up to 90% of the heat
release takes place in this phase.
 C-D: The volume of unburned charge is very much less towards the end of flame travel, which
reduces the flame speed.

Rate of flame propagation affects the combustion

process in SI engines. Higher combustion efficiency
and fuel economy can be achieved by higher flame
propagation velocities. Unfortunately, flame velocities
for most fuels range between 10 to 30 m/second.
Factors influencing the flame speed
Turbulence
Higher turbulence intensity  Greater flame propagation speed
Reason: Turbulence wrinkles the flame surface. Since the rate of burning is proportional to the
flame surface area, the overall consumption speed rises.

However, excessive turbulence may extinguish the flame (during flame development stage)
resulting in rough and noisy operation of the engine.
Temperature and Pressure
Flame speed increases with an increase in the temperature and pressure after compression.
Reason: Higher T increases reaction rates.
Engine Speed
The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed.
Reason: The increase in engine speed increases the turbulence inside the cylinder.
Compression Ratio
A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the working mixture, thus
engines having higher compression ratios have higher flame speeds.
Factors influencing the flame speed
Fuel-Air Ratio
The Fuel-air ratio has a very significant influence on the flame speed. The highest flame velocities
(minimum time for complete combustion) are obtained with somewhat richer mixture
When the mixture is made leaner or richer the flame speed decreases.
Engine Size
 The size of the engine does not have much
effect on the rate of flame propagation.
 In large engines, the time required for complete
combustion is longer because the flame has to
travel a longer distance.
 This requires increased crank angle duration
during the combustion. This is one of the
reasons why large-sized engines are designed to
operate at low speeds.

Reference: Amirante, Riccardo, et al.,

International Journal of Engine Research 18.9
(2017): 951-970.
Afterburning
 Combustion does not terminate after the flame front covers the whole combustion chamber
 After this point afterburning continues for a long time near the walls and behind the turbulent flame
front.
 The combustion rate in this stage reduces due to surface of the flame front becoming smaller and
reduction in turbulence.
 About 10% heat is evolved in after-burning stage.
 Difficult to quantify this stage because heat release rate is comparable to heat loss process.
The combustion duration
𝑑𝑄 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑃
= 𝑃 + 𝑉
𝑑 𝜃 𝛾 −1 𝑑 𝜃 𝛾 − 1 𝑑 𝜃

Step 1: Calculate the total heat release rate by integrating the

heat release rate curve over crank angle.
Step 2: Identify the crank angles at which 10% and 90% of the
total heat release is complete

Representative variation of heat release rate

with crank angle in a SI engine.
Figure: Effect of engine speed on flame-development angle
(0 to 10% burned) and overall burning angle (0 to 90%
burned) at , intake pressure = 0.54 atm, spark is at 30°
bTDC.

The combustion duration (physical time) decreases with

engine RPM. But combustion duration (°CA) marginally
increases with engine RPM.
Spark advance angle
Spark timing relative to the TDC affects the pressure development and thus the imep and power of
the engine.
The overall burning angle is typically between 40° to 60°, depending on engine speed.
The spark is typically activated before the TDC, in order to get the peak pressure at 15°-20° aTDC.
The advance of the spark activation from the TDC is known as the spark advance angle.

Engine at WOT,
constant engine
speed and A/F
Optimum spark advance and the Maximum brake torque (MBT)
If start of combustion is too early work is done against piston and if too late then peak pressure is
reduced.
The optimum spark advance is the spark activation angle corresponding which the maximum
brake torque is generated.
There is always cycle-to-cycle variability, the maximum brake torque is a mean quantity that
averages out the cyclic variability.
Effect of engine speed on optimum spark advance
Recall the overall burn angle (90% burn) increases with
engine speed; to accommodate this, we need a larger spark
advance.

The optimum spark advance increases with engine RPM.

Optimum spark advance
(deg bTDC)

Engine RPM (rev/min)

MCQ 1
Which strategy for introducing fuel is best for thermal efficiency?

(a) Carburetion
(b) Port fuel injection
(c) Direct injection into the combustion chamber
MCQ 2
Ignition delay is minimum when the petrol-air mixture is

(a) Slightly rich ()

(b) Slightly lean ()
(c) Stoichiometric
(d) Very rich ()
MCQ 3
Flame speed is minimum under which of the following condition

(a) Slightly rich ()

(b) Slightly lean ()
(c) Stoichiometric
(d) Very lean ()
MCQ 4
Which of the following is desirable in an SI engine?

(a) High turbulence near the spark plug, low turbulence away from the spark plug
(b) Low turbulence near the spark plug, high turbulence away from the spark plug
(c) High turbulence everywhere
(d) Quiescent everywhere
MCQ 5
Which type of mixture provides the best fuel economy?

(a) Rich
(b) Lean
(c) Stoichiometric
MCQ 6
The spark advance angle corresponding to the maximum brake torque (MBT) also produces
the highest in-cylinder pressure.

(a) True
(b) False
MCQ 7
Disadvantage of GDI – homogeneous charge over MPFI is

(a) Lower thermal efficiency

(b) Higher UHC emission
(c) Higher PM emission
(d) Lower intake valve life
Abnormal combustion and
knocking
Abnormal Combustion
Normal Combustion: Combustion process which is initiated by only spark plug in which the flame
front propagate across the combustion chamber in a uniformly manner at a normal velocity.
Abnormal Combustion: Combustion process in which flame front may be initiated by hot
combustion chamber surface either prior to or after spark ignition or a process in which a part or all
of the charge may be consumed at extremely high rate.
The phenomenon of knock in SI engines

Fig (a) shows the cross-section of the combustion chamber with flame advancing from the spark plug
location: Without knock.
Fig. (c) shows the combustion process with knock.
In the normal combustion the flame travels across the combustion chamber from A towards D.
The advancing flame front compresses the end charge BB’D farthest from the spark plug, thus raising
its temperature.
The temperature is also increased due to heat transfer from the hot advancing flame front.
The phenomenon of knock in SI engines
• The temperature of the end charge had not reached its self-ignition temperature, the charge would
not auto-ignite and the flame will advance further and consume the charge BB’D. This is the normal
combustion process.
• If the end charge BB’D reaches its auto-ignition temperature and remains at that temperature for
time duration longer than pre flame reactions, the charge will auto-ignite, leading to knocking
combustion.
• When flame has reached the position BB’, the charge ahead of it has reached critical auto-ignition
temperature. During the pre flame reaction period if the flame front could move from BB’ to only
CC’ then the charge ahead of CC’ would auto-ignite.
• Because of the auto-ignition, another flame front starts traveling in the opposite direction to the
main frame front.
• When the two flame fronts collide, a severe pressure pulse is generated.
• The gas in the chamber is subjected to compression and rarefaction along the pressure pulse until
pressure equilibrium is restored.
• This disturbance can force the walls of the combustion chamber to vibrate as the same frequency as
the gas.
• This phenomenon is called knocking in SI engines.
Piston damage induced by heavy knocking

Reference: Xu, Han, et al. Applied Energy 203 (2017): 506-521.

Knocking intensity

To quantify the severity of knocking the pressure signal is decomposed into

the mean and fluctuating components.

Here, the mean component is simply the cylinder pressure during normal
combustion with no knock. The classification between light and heavy knock
Combustion with
is carried out by defining the maximum amplitude of pressure oscillations
light knock
(MAPO) as

DelVescovo et al. has used the following criterion:

Light knock: 0.5 bar < MAPO < 1.0 bar, Heavy knock: MAPO > 1.0 bar

Reference: DelVescovo, Dan A., et al. Fuel 338 (2023): 127371.

Combustion with
heavy knock
Effect of engine variables on knock
Time factor (Physical time)
• Increasing the flame speed or reducing the exposure of unburned charge to auto-ignition will
reduce knocking.
• Increase in turbulence increase the flame speed and reduce time for auto-ignition of unburned
charge
• Increase in engine speed increase the turbulence and reduce knocking.
• In larger engine flame require more time to travel across combustion chamber therefore it has
greater tendency of knocking.
• Combustion chambers are made as spherical as possible to minimize length of flame travel.
• Spark plug is centrally located in in combustion chamber to reduce flame travel.
Composition factor
• Fuel-air ratio and octane number play important role to reduce knock.
• Reaction rate and flame temperature are affected by fuel air ratio. Maximum tendency of knock
takes place for fuel-air ratio which gives minimum reaction time.
• Higher octane number fuels have lower tendency for knocking.
Effect of engine variables on knock
Density factors
• Reducing the density of charge tends to reduce knocking.
• Increase in compression ratio will increase the density of charge, which increases knocking
tendency of engine.
• Reducing the amount of charge induced by throttling or by reducing supercharging will reduce
density.
• Increase in inlet temperature of mixture makes compression temperature higher which increase
tendency to knock.
• End gas should not be compressed against spark plug and exhaust valve as they are the
hottest parts.
Effect of engine variables on knock

• Engine Speed: Higher RPM reduces knocking propensity

• Compression ratio: Higher compression ratio increases knocking tendency
• Surface/volume ratio: Higher S/V ratio increases heat loss, reduces knocking tendency
• Spark plug distance from cylindrical axis: Increased distance increases knocking tendency
• EGR: EGR reduces knocking tendency
• Inlet pressure and temperature: Higher P and T increases knocking tendency
• Fuel-air ratio: F/A closer to stoichiometry increases knocking tendency.
• Wall temperature: Higher is bad for knocking
• Octane number: Higher is good for knock prevention (by definition)
• Carbon deposition: Carbon deposition creates local hot spots, leading to knocking
Dynamic knocking detection and suppression
As discussed, knocking is characterized based on the MAPO (maximum amplitude of pressure
oscillations), which is detected by using the in-cylinder pressure sensor or the block mounted
accelerometer.

If the MAPO exceeds a pre-set value, the combustion cycle is registered as a knock cycle in the
engine ECU. In the following cycle, the ignition timing is retarded from the MBT timing. This
process is continued in the subsequent cycles till the knocking disappears.
Octane number: Fuel knock scale
To provide a standard measure of a fuel’s ability to resist knock, a scale has been devised by which
fuels are assigned an octane number.
The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock in a given engine under given
operating conditions.
By definition, normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of zero and isooctane (C 8H18) has a value
of 100.
The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock.
Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of intermediate octane numbers: e.g., a
blend of 10% n-heptane and 90% isooctane (by volume) has an octane number of 90.
A fuel’s octane number is determined by measuring what blend of these two hydrocarbons matches
the test fuel’s knock resistance.
Octane number measurement
Two methods have been developed to measure ON using a standardized single-cylinder engine
developed under the auspices of the Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) Committee in 1931.
The CFR engine is 4-stroke with 3.25” bore and 4.5” stroke, compression ratio can be varied from 3
to 30.
Octane number measurement
Testing procedure:
• Run the CFR engine on the test fuel at both research and motor conditions.
• Slowly increase the compression ratio until a standard amount of knock occurs.
• At that compression ratio run the engines on blends of n-heptane and isooctane.
• ON is the % by volume of octane in the blend that produces the Knock

Note the motor octane number is always lower because it uses more severe operating conditions:
higher inlet temperature and more spark advance. The automobile manufacturer will specify the
minimum fuel ON that will resist knock throughout the engine’s operating speed and load range.
High performance fuels
High-performance fuels marketed by various OMCs are essentially fuels having a higher octane
number than regular diesel.

n-heptane Diesel Petrol Iso-octane

RON = 0 RON < 25 RON = 91 RON = 100

n-heptane has an octane iso-octane has an octane number

number of 0 by definition of 100 by definition
Maximum knocking propensity Minimum knocking propensity
Performance characterization
– Naturally aspirated engines
Volumetric efficiency vs Engine RPM at wide-open throttle (WOT)
Volumetric efficiency is poor at low RPM
In naturally aspirated engines, the air gets drawn into the engine
because of the vacuum created inside the cylinder due to

Volumetric efficiency ()
downward motion of the piston. At low RPM, the piston speed
Variable valve timing
is less. So, the vacuum created inside the cylinder is weaker. As
a result, the is lower.
Intermediate RPM improves
The vacuum pressure due to piston movement is more Fixed valve timing
significant at intermediate engine RPM. Under these condition,
the available time is also sufficient to fill in the cylinder. The
max value of is about 85%-90% for naturally aspirated engines. Engine RPM

Large RPM again reduces

Large engine RPM creates sufficient vacuum inside the cylinder. However, under these conditions the
duration through which the valves stay open is generally not sufficient to fill in the cylinder with
fresh charge. As a result, the volumetric efficiency reduces. By using variable valve timing, the curve
can be flattened compared to fixed valve timing. The optimum RPM for maximizing the is unique
for each engine.
The engine torque output follows the volumetric efficiency
WOT operation

Volumetric efficiency ()
Engine torque (N.m)
𝑇 =𝑎 𝑅𝑐 sin ⁡(𝜃+ 𝜙 )

Engine RPM
In an SI engine the combustion is stoichiometric. That is, there is just the correct amount of air for
complete combustion of the fuel. It follows that, if more air can be inducted into the cylinder, then
more fuel can be burned, resulting in greater cylinder pressure and torque.

In essence, the engine torque closely follows the volumetric efficiency across the RPM range.
The engine power output peaks at a higher RPM compared to torque
WOT operation
Power (hp)
Torque (N.m)

Power (hp)
Torque (N.m)

Engine RPM
Power = Torque * Engine rotational speed =
In region 1, Both torque and power increases with
RPM
In region 2, torque decreases but power increases
with RPM. Reduction in torque is compensated by
the gain in RPM, hence, power increases.
In region 3, the engine RPM cannot compensate for
the dropping torque. Hence, power reduces.
[Link]
Indicated Power, Brake Power, and Frictional Power
WOT operation

ip

Power (hp)
bp

fp

Engine RPM

Frictional power increases monotonically with engine RPM  Rubbing frictional loss increases with
piston speed.

Hence, indicated power peaks at a higher engine RPM than the brake power.
Brake specific fuel consumption
Let us carry out a per-cycle derivation of the brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc). Assume that
the engine is operating at wide open throttle with a constant air fuel ratio (stoichiometric).

Mass of fuel consumed per cycle

Brake specific fuel consumption (gm of fuel/kWh of brake thermal energy) is given as follows.

Dependencies: bsfc increases as increases, decreases as increase.

Brake specific fuel consumption
WOT operation
Torque (N.m) Power (hp)

Torque (N.m)
Power (hp)
BSFC (gm/kWh) BSFC (gm/kWh)

Engine RPM

Engine RPM for,

Fuel consumption map
Till now the discussion has focused on the engine performance parameters assuming wide-open
throttle operation. However, in a real world application the engine power may vary from low (almost
closed throttle) to high (wide-open throttle). Hence, we shift our focus now to the dependence of the
engine performance parameters on the engine power output.
At a given engine RPM, the bsfc is the highest
at low engine power (idling condition). This
is because with almost closed throttle the max power
pumping power loss is significant, leading to a
low indicated thermal efficiency and high bsfc. min
bsfc

A typical fuel consumption map for a naturally

aspirated spark ignition engine is presented
here.

High bsfc due to

large pumping loss.
Supercharging and
turbocharging
Supercharging and turbocharging
Supercharging and turbocharging are methods for boosting the power output of an engine.

The power output of an engine is limited by the amount of fuel () it can burn in a cycle.

The mass of fuel burn () is again limited by the mass of air that can be inducted during the suction
stroke ().

The mass of the inducted air can be increased if we can boost the air density before feeding the air to
the engine.

Both supercharging and turbocharging are methodologies to achieve the above objective.

Supercharging employs a compressor driven by a motor to increase the air density. The motor, in
turn, draws power directly from the crankshaft through a belt-pulley/gear.

Turbocharging employs a compressor driven by a turbine to increase the air density. The turbine is
driven by the hot exhaust gases coming out of the engine.
Supercharging – design considerations
• Supercharging increases the engine’s power output.
• A fraction of the engine’s power is consumed to run the
compressor.
• Supercharging increases the brake mean effective pressure
of an engine. Hence, the mechanical components must be
designed to withstand this higher pressure.
• The increased P and T at the inlet may lead to knocking.
Therefore, the compression ratio in a supercharged engine
may be lowered compared to the naturally aspirated engine
to avoid knocking.
• An aftercooler may be employed to reduce the temperature
of the air after compression.
• With supercharging the intake pressure may be boosted by
0.5 bar to 1 bar.
Supercharging is desirable under the following conditions.
• Luxury/sports cars where higher power output is desired from the engine.
• Engines working at high altitudes. The power loss due to altitude can be compensated by
supercharging.
Centrifugal supercharger
The centrifugal type supercharger is commonly used
in automotive engines. A V-belt from the engine
pulley runs the supercharger. First, the air enters the
impeller at the centre. It then passes through the
impeller and the diffuser vanes. Finally, air enters the
volute casing and then goes to the engine from the
casing. The mixture will come out at higher pressure
and this condition is called supercharged condition.

Because of higher pressure more air is forced into the

cylinder. The impeller runs at very high speeds, about
80,000 revolutions per minute. Therefore, the
impeller should be able to withstand the high stresses
produced at this speed. Impellers are usually made of
duralumin, or alloy steels, to withstand the high
stresses. The efficiency of the centrifugal compressor
is poor at low engine RPM.
Root’s supercharger
https://
[Link]/
performance/
superharging-to-increase-
horsepower/?

Root’s
supercharger Hybrid Root’s/Screw compressor
The Root’s supercharger has two rotors of epicycloids shape, with each rotor keyed to its shaft. One
rotor is connected with the other one by means of gears. The gears are of equal size and therefore both
the rotors rotate at the same speed. The Root’s supercharger operates like a gear pump. The mixture at
the outlet of this supercharger will be at much higher pressure than the inlet. Positive displacement
compressors are preferred at low engine RPM.
Indicator diagram with supercharging

Naturally Supercharged
aspirated

Note: The area under the primary and secondary loop is not to scale. In a supercharged engine, the
work contribution by the secondary loop may be 3-10% of the primary loop.

The negative work loop in the indicator diagram is eliminated with supercharging as the suction
stroke pressure is above ambient now. However, energy is consumed by the compressor. Hence,
supercharging may or may not improve the brake thermal efficiency.
Turbocharger
A turbocharger runs the compressor through a turbine connected
to the same shaft, instead of directly drawing power from the
crankshaft. A fraction of the energy contained in the exhaust
gases run the turbine. Turbocharged engines are more energy
efficient than supercharged engines.

Energy balance in a typical SI engine

Schematic of the flow path in a turbocharged SI engine.
Indicator diagram with turbocharging
Naturally
Supercharged Turbocharged
aspirated

The pumping gain (secondary loop) in the turbocharged configuration is smaller compared with the
supercharged configuration. This is because, in the supercharged config, the exhaust of the combustor
is open to the atmosphere. Due to pressure losses in the exhaust manifold, the exhaust pressure is
slightly higher than ambient. However, with a turbocharger the exhaust gases pass through the turbine
leading before being ejected to the ambient. Hence, the exhaust pressure is elevated. This shrinks the
pumping gain in the secondary loop.
Turbolag
There is a time lag for the pressure boost by the
turbocharger to kick-in after the engine starts. This
phenomenon is known as turbo lag.

The engine RPM is low at start-up  Exhaust gas flow

rate is low  The turbine RPM is low  The compressor
RPM is low (turbine and compressor are on the same
shaft)  The compressor cannot provide an effective
pressure boost  The engine feels underpowered.

At high RPM, the exhaust gas is made to partially bypass

the turbocharger to ensure that the turbine does not reach
uncontrollable high speeds. This valve is known as a
‘wastegate’.
Torque characteristics – NA vs turbo/supercharged

Engine torque (N.m)

Turbo/supercharged

Variable
valve timing
Fixed valve
timing

Engine RPM

Forced induction compresses intake air, maintaining higher air density across RPM. The ECU
regulates boost so torque remains nearly flat (“plateau”) across a wide range. Unlike the NA engines,
torque does not fall sharply at high RPM because boost compensates for natural efficiency losses.

Once the torque has reached the ECU’s target, the wastegate modulates the pressure boost by bleeding
off excess exhaust flow. So, the torque stays flat over a wide RPM range.
Torque characteristics – NA vs turbo/supercharged: Example

[Link]
Supercharged vs Turbocharged vs Naturally Aspirated engines
Naturally Supercharged Turbocharged
aspirated
Net power output Lower Higher Higher
Fuel injection MPFI/GDI GDI is preferred to avoid GDI is preferred to avoid
technique knocking knocking
Knocking tendency Lower Higher Higher
Peak cylinder P and T Lower Higher Higher
Cooling requirement Lower Higher Higher
Compression ratio Higher Lower to avoid knocking Lower to avoid knocking
Secondary loop in P-V Negative (work Positive (work gain) Marginally positive
diagram loss)
Volumetric efficiency 0.8-0.9 > 1.0 > 1.0
Torque curve Narrow peak Flat peak Flat peak
Thermal efficiency Lower than NA Higher than NA
Examples

Cars with superchargers

Lotus Emira Superchargers are generally made available in the

luxury cars, for the instant boost provided by the
Jaguar F-type V8 supercharger at the cost of fuel efficiency. Some cars
Audi S5 may also come with both turbo and superchargers
(twin-charged engines). Superchargers ensure high
pressure boost is available during engine idling,
Cars with turbochargers turbochargers ensure better thermal efficiency at high
RPM conditions.
Hyundai Creta (some variants)
Turbochargers are made available in common
Maruti Suzuki Baleno (some variants) consumer cars for efficiency gains.
Tata Nexon (some variants)
Problem 2
The droplet evaporation time can be estimated by the expression , where is the evaporation constant
in . The evaporation constant can be modeled as , T is in K. The average temperature experienced by
the MPFI and GDI droplets are 400 K and 500 K, respectively. Calculate the time required for
evaporation (in terms of °CA) if the average diameter of the droplets is 50 for MPFI and 20 for GDI.
The engine is running at 3000 RPM.

MPFI = 90°CA, GDI = 13°CA

Problem 3
A single cylinder spark ignition engine with a compression ratio of 10 operates on an ideal Otto cycle
and generates an indicated work output of 100 J at the mean sea level (P 1 = 101.3 kPa, T1 = 300 K).

The work output of the engine drops when it is taken to Leh, Ladakh; where the ambient conditions
are Pamb = 65 kPa, Tamb = 265 K. The intake manifold conditions are given by P 1 = unknown, T1 = 265
K after air has passed through the compressor and aftercooler.

Determine the degree of supercharging (P1/Pamb) needed to get back the same work output. The peak
temperature in the cycle is always maintained at 2300 K from a thermal safety consideration.
Assume, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K.

Degree of supercharging = 1.30

Problem 4
Consider a single cylinder SI engine operating on an ideal Otto cycle available with both naturally
aspirated and supercharged variants. Assume, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K.
Naturally aspirated variant
1. P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke  Ambient condition)
2. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
3. Compression ratio = 10
Supercharged variant
4. P1 = 1.5 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke, after supercharger and aftercooler)
5. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
6. Compression ratio = 10
The cylinder displacement is 400 cc, and the cylinder gets filled only up to 85% of the displacement
volume in all cases. Fill in the table.
Net specific work output per cycle (kJ/kg) Net work output per cycle (J)
Naturally aspirated
Supercharged (before accounting for
supercharger work)
Supercharged (after accounting for
supercharger work)
Problem 4
Consider a single cylinder SI engine operating on an ideal Otto cycle available with both naturally
aspirated and supercharged variants. Assume, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K.
Naturally aspirated variant
1. P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke  Ambient condition)
2. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
3. Compression ratio = 10
Supercharged variant
4. P1 = 1.5 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke, after supercharger and aftercooler)
5. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
6. Compression ratio = 10
The cylinder displacement is 400 cc, and the cylinder gets filled only up to 85% of the displacement
volume in all cases. Assume isentropic compression by the supercharger. Fill in the table.
Net specific work output per cycle (kJ/kg) Net work output per cycle (J)
Naturally aspirated 452.2 178.6
Supercharged (before accounting for 192.9 114.2
supercharger work)
Supercharged (after accounting for 155.9 92.3
supercharger work)
Problem 5
Consider a single cylinder SI engine operating on an ideal Otto cycle available with both naturally
aspirated and supercharged variants. Assume, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K.
Naturally aspirated variant
1. P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke  Ambient condition)
2. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
3. Compression ratio = 10
Supercharged variant
4. P1 = 1.5 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke, after supercharger and aftercooler)
5. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
6. Specific heat addition (kJ/kg) in the supercharged variant equals the NA variant. CR is unknown.
The cylinder displacement is 400 cc, and the cylinder gets filled only up to 85% of the displacement
volume in all cases. Fill in the table.
Net specific work output per cycle (kJ/kg) Net work output per cycle (J)
Naturally aspirated
Supercharged (before accounting for
supercharger work)
Supercharged (after accounting for
supercharger work)
Problem 5
Consider a single cylinder SI engine operating on an ideal Otto cycle available with both naturally
aspirated and supercharged variants. Assume, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K.
Naturally aspirated variant
1. P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke  Ambient condition)
2. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
3. Compression ratio = 10
Supercharged variant
4. P1 = 1.5 bar, T1 = 300 K (Beginning of the compression stroke, after supercharger and aftercooler)
5. Max pressure in the cycle = 60 bar (Limited by engine knocking consideration)
6. Specific heat addition (kJ/kg) in the supercharged variant equals the NA variant. CR is unknown.
The cylinder displacement is 400 cc, and the cylinder gets filled only up to 85% of the displacement
volume in all cases. Fill in the table.
Net specific work output per cycle (kJ/kg) Net work output per cycle (J)
Naturally aspirated 452.2 178.6
Supercharged (before accounting for 407.3 241.2
supercharger work)
Supercharged (after accounting for 370.3 219.3
supercharger work)
Problem 6
A single cylinder 4-stroke petrol engine has a displacement volume of 230 cc and operates at 2400
RPM. It is provided with a turbocharger. The inlet manifold conditions after the compressor is 1.8
atm. The volumetric efficiency is 1.1. The compressor and turbine isentropic efficiencies are 0.75
and 0.6, respectively. The ambient conditions are 1 atm and 300 K. Calculate the following:
(a) The power required to drive the compressor of the turbocharger (in kW).
(b) If the exhaust gas temperature from the engine is 950 K, calculate the pressure at the turbine inlet.
Assume that the product gases entirely pass through the turbine (neglect mass flow rate of fuel)
and the turbine exhausts to the atmosphere.

Assume,
Air: Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K, = 1.4
Product gases: Cp = 1.2 kJ/kg.K, = 1.3

Compressor power requirement = 0.44 kW,

Turbine inlet pressure = 165.8 kPa
Petrol composition
PIONA
The composition of petrol is varied across the seasons. The percentage distribution of saturated
compounds (paraffins/iso-paraffins) is increased in winter to improve the ignitability of the fuel-air
mixture. The percentage distribution of the unsaturated compounds (aromatics) is increased in
summer to prevent vapour lock in the fuel injector.
P I O N A
Paraffin Iso-paraffin Olefin Naphthene Aromatics
Strain chain alkanes Branched alkanes Alkenes Cycloalkane Very high
Low Octane, high High Octane, Moderate Octane and Moderate Octane, Octane, low
volatility fairly volatile volatility low volatility volatility
(n-butane, n-heptane) (iso-octane) (propylene, butene) (Cyclohexane) (benzene)
PIONA Category RON = 92 RON = 93 RON = 95 RON = 97
Paraffins
50.2 42.4 37.4 35.8
Isoparaffins
Olefins 9.0 12.5 12.4 15.0
Naphthenes N/A N/A N/A N/A Reference: Pazmiño-Viteri, Katherine,
Aromatics 31.9 37.0 41.4 40.9 et al. Processes 12.8 (2024): 1706.
PIONA
Crude distillation unit
Schematic of the refining process
Process Major Products
Alkylation Iso-paraffins
Reforming Aromatics, Iso-
paraffins
Coking Naptha, coke
Catalytic Aromatics, Olefins
cracking

On average, a refinery will

refine 25 to 45% of the input
crude oil into gasoline, 25 to
40% into diesel, jet fuel, and
heating oil, 5 to 20% into
heavy fuel oils, and the
remaining 20% into other
products.
Petrol composition
Petrol is a blend of hydrocarbons with boiling points ranging from about 30°C to 200°C. The average
molecular composition of a typical gasoline is close to C 7H13; it includes hydrocarbon molecules
containing between four and ten carbon atoms. The C:H atom ratio in commercial gasolines varies
from about 1.6 to 2.2.
In terms of SI engine operation, the most critical gasoline
properties are its volatility and its resistance to autoignition
(or knock) during the latter part of the combustion process. A
gasoline’s volatility is characterized by its distillation curve;
the volume fraction evaporated at atmospheric pressure as a
function of temperature. Typically, 10% of gasoline
vaporizes below about 50°C (T10), 50% vaporizes below
100°C (T50), and 90% below 170°C (T90). Short-chain
compounds (C4 to C6) start evaporating at 30°C onward.
Petrol contains long-chain components up to C10. The
longer chain components may require temperatures up to
200°C to vaporize fully.
Reference: Rodriguez, J. Felipe, and Wai K. Cheng. SAE Int.
[Link] 9, no. 2 (April 5, 2016).