Introduction to Software Engineering

Software Process Models

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Software Development
Construction
Some of the major construction activities are listed below.
• Requirement Gathering
• Design Development
• Coding
• Testing
Management
Some of the major management activities are listed below.
• Project Planning and Management
• Configuration Management
• Software Quality Assurance
• Installation and Training
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Figure 1: Development Activities

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Ad hoc Software Development

• Developing software without planning for each phase, and

without specifying tasks, deliverables, or time constraints.

• Relies entirely on the skills and experience of the

individuals performing the work.

• The software process may change as work progresses.

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Case Study : SaudiTech

What could go wrong in a software development project?
SaudiTech is a software company. It has a team of 25
programmers. Ali has recently established a dental clinic in
Riyadh and asked SaudiTech to develop a management
system for his dental clinic.
Ali’s request was to develop a system to electronically manage
patient records and perform administrative functions similar to
‘what is being used in other clinics’ but within a budget of 500
Saudi riyals and delivered within 3 months.
SaudiTech adopts an ad hoc approach (Developing software
without planning for each phase, and without specifying
tasks, deliverables, or time constraints) to software
development and has not worked on large scale projects
before.
What problems do you anticipate in this project?
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How can we overcome problems with ad hoc

software development?
 Problems:

to distinguish between tasks  important tasks may be

 Difficult

ignored.
 Inconsistent schedules, budgets, functionality and product quality.

 Delayed problem discovery  more costly to fix.

Solution? Software Process Model

 Software Process Models provide guidelines to organize how

software process activities should be performed and in what
order.
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The Software Process

• A structured set of activities required to develop a
software system.
• Many different software processes but all involve:
• Specification – defining what the system should do
• Design and implementation – defining the organization of the
system and implementing the system;
• Validation – checking that it does what the customer wants;
• Evolution – changing the system in response to changing
customer needs.
• A software process model is an abstract representation
of a process. It presents a description of a process from
some particular perspective.
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Software Process Descriptions

• When we describe and discuss processes, we usually talk
about the activities in these processes such as specifying
a data model, designing a user interface, etc. and the
ordering of these activities.
• Process descriptions may also include:
• Products, which are the outcomes of a process activity;
• Roles, which reflect the responsibilities of the people involved in
the process;
• Pre- and post-conditions, which are statements that are true
before and after a process activity has been enacted or a
product produced.
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Plan-driven and Agile Processes

• Plan-driven processes are processes where all of the

process activities are planned in advance and progress is
measured against this plan.
• Plan drives everything!
• In Agile Processes planning is incremental and it is easier to
change the process to reflect changing customer
requirements.

• In practice, most practical processes include elements of

both plan-driven and agile.

• There are no right or wrong software processes.

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Software Process/SDLC Models

Software Process model:
 Abstract representation of a software process
 Each Process model represents a process from different perspective

 Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed
in the industry:
 Waterfall model.
 V Model
 Evolutionary development.
 Component-Based development model (CBSE).
 Process iteration(incremental and spiral Models)
The other related methodologies are Agile and RAD Model – Rapid
Application Development
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Waterfall Model
• First published model

• Because of the cascade from one phase to another, this

model is known as ‘Waterfall Model’.

• It is also referred to as linear-sequential life cycle model.

• Each phase must be completed before the next phase

can begin and there is no overlapping in the phases.
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Waterfall Model
The sequential phases in Waterfall model are:
Requirement Gathering and analysis: All possible
requirements of the system to be developed are captured in this
phase and documented in a requirement specification
document.
• System’s services
• Constraints
• Goals

System Design: The requirement specifications from first phase

are studied in this phase and system design is prepared.
System Design helps in specifying hardware and system
requirements and also helps in defining overall system
architecture.
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Waterfall Model
Implementation and unit testing: With inputs from
system design, the system is first developed in small
programs called units, which are integrated in the next
phase. Each unit is developed and tested for its
functionality which is referred to as Unit Testing.

Integration and Testing: All the units developed in the

implementation phase are integrated into a system after
testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is
tested for any faults and failures.
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Waterfall Model
Deployment of system: Once the functional and
nonfunctional testing is done, the product is deployed in
the customer environment or released into the market.

Maintenance: There are some issues which come up in

the client environment. To fix those issues patches are
released. Also, to enhance the product some better
versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver
these changes in the customer environment.
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Waterfall Model
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Waterfall Model
Applicability:

• Requirements are very well understood, clear and fixed

• Product definition is stable

• Technology is understood
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Waterfall Model
Advantages:
• Documentation - at each phase
• Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
• Easy to arrange tasks.

Problems:
• Inflexible partitioning of the project into distinct stages
makes it difficult to respond to changing customer
requirements.
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V Model
• A variation of the waterfall model

• Development phases are presented in a V-shaped graph.

• It is also known as Verification and Validation model.

• For every single phase in the development cycle there is

a directly associated testing phase.
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Verification and Validation

• Verification
• Does the product meet system specifications?
• Have you built the product right?

• Validation
• Does the product meet user expectations?
• Have you built the right product?
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V Model
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V Model Verification Phases

Following are the Verification phases in V-Model
Business Requirement Analysis:
• This phase involves detailed communication with the
customer to understand his expectations and exact
requirement.
• The acceptance test design planning is done at this stage as
business requirements can be used as an input for
acceptance testing.
System Design:
• System design would comprise of understanding and
detailing the complete hardware and communication setup
for the product under development.
• System test plan is developed based on the system design.
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V Model Verification Phases

Architectural Design:
• System design is broken down further into modules taking up
different functionality.
• The data transfer and communication between the internal modules
and with the outside world (other systems) is clearly understood
and defined in this stage.
• With this information, integration tests can be designed and
documented during this stage.
Module Design:
• In this phase the detailed internal design for all the system
modules is specified
• It is important that the design is compatible with the other modules
in the system architecture and the other external systems.
• Unit tests can be designed at this stage
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V Model
Coding Phase
• The actual coding of the system modules designed in the
design phase is taken up in the Coding phase.
• The best suitable programming language is decided
based on the system and architectural requirements.
• The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines
and standards.
• The code goes through numerous code reviews and is
optimized for best performance before the final build is
checked into the repository.
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V Model Validation Phases

Following are the Validation phases in V-Model:
Unit Testing:
• Unit tests designed in the module design phase
• Unit testing is the testing at code level and helps to
eliminate bugs at an early stage

Integration Testing:
• Integration testing is associated with the architectural
design phase.
• Integration tests are performed to test the coexistence
and communication of the internal modules within the
system.
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V Model Validation Phases

System Testing:
• System tests check the entire system functionality and the
communication of the system under development with
external systems.
• Most of the software and hardware compatibility issues can
be uncovered during system test execution.

Acceptance Testing:
• Acceptance testing is associated with the business
requirement analysis phase and involves testing the product
in user environment.
• It also discovers the non functional issues such as load and
performance defects in the actual user environment.
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V Model
Advantages:
• Testing activities like planning, test designing, happens
well before coding.
• Higher chances of success over the waterfall model.
• Works well for projects where requirements are easily
understood.

Problems:
• Difficult to handle changes in requirements throughout the
life cycle
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V Model
Applicability:

• The V-shaped model should be used for projects where

requirements are clearly defined and fixed.

• The V-Shaped model should be chosen when technical

resources are available with needed technical expertise.

• High confidence of customer is required for choosing the

V-Shaped model approach.
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Evolutionary Models
Evolutionary Development:
• Includes the activities of specification, development and
validation
• Initial system is developed from abstract specification
• Then refined with customer input to produce a system that
satisfies the customer’ s needs.

Two types of evolutionary development

1. Exploratory
2. Prototyping
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Evolutionary Models
Exploratory Model

• Objective of the process is to work with customers to explore

their requirements and deliver a final system.

• The development starts with the parts of the system that are
understood.

• The system evolves by adding new features proposed by

customer.

• This model works best in situations where few, or none, of the

system or product requirements are known in detail.
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Exploratory Models

Initial
Specification
Version

Outline Intermediate
Description Development Version

Validation Final
Version
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Exploratory Model

 Problems:
 Lack of process visibility;
 Systems are often poorly structured

 Applicability:
 For small or medium-size interactive systems
 For parts of large systems (e.g. the user interface)
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Evolutionary Models
Prototyping Model
• When a customer defines a set of general objectives for a
software but does not identify detailed I/O or processing
requirements.
• A prototype is built to understand the requirements.
• By using this prototype, the client can get an “actual feel”
of the system
• The interactions with prototype can enable the client to
better understand the requirements of the desired system
• Prototyping is an attractive idea for complicated and large
systems.
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Evolutionary Models
Prototyping Model

Consists of 4 iterating phases:

• Requirements gathering.
• Design and build prototype.
• Evaluate prototype with customer.
• Refine requirements.
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Prototype Model
1. Requirements gathering.
2. Design and build SW prototype.
1/4
Listen to 3. Evaluate prototype with customer.
Customer 4. Refine requirements.

3
2
Customer
Build / Revise
Test-Drives
prototypes
prototypes
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Prototyping
Engineer Requirements
Product
No Quick
Yes Design
Changes?

Build
Refine Prototype
Prototype
Evaluate
Prototype (Pressman, 1996)
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Prototype Model
Advantages:
• Users are actively involved in the development
• Users get a better understanding of the system being
developed.
• Errors can be detected much earlier.
• Quicker user feedback is available leading to better
solutions.
Disadvantages:
• Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity
of the system as scope of the system may expand beyond
original plans.
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Prototype Model
Applicability:

• Prototype model should be used when the desired system

needs to have a lot of interaction with the end users.

• Typically, online systems, web interfaces have a very high

amount of interaction with end users, are best suited for
Prototype model.
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Component-based Software Engineering

• Based on systematic reuse where systems are integrated
from existing components.
• People working on the project  Know of design or code
(similar to that required) Modify them as needed 
incorporate them into their system
• Process stages
• Component analysis
• Requirements modification
• System design with reuse
• Development and integration

• This approach is becoming increasingly used

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The CBD/CBSE is the Solution…

• Systems should be assembled from existing
components
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Why Components!!!
• Following other engineering disciplines (civil and

electrical), software engineering is looking to develop

• A catalogue of software building blocks

• Connection Standards
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Component-based Software Engineering

Requirements Component Requirements System design

specification analysis modification with reuse

Development System
and integ
ration validation
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Component-based Software Engineering

Component analysis
• Given the requirement specification
• Search is made for components
• Usually there is no exact match.
Requirement Modification
• Requirements are analyzed—using information of discovered
components
• If modifications are impossible— component analysis activity
may be re-entered to search for alternate solution
System Design with Reuse
• Frame work of system is designed or an existing frame work is
reused.
Development and integration Software
• Existing software /modified and newly developed components
are integrated.
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Component-based Software Engineering

Advantages
• Reduce the amount of software to be developed
• Reducing cost and risk
• Faster delivery of software

Disadvantages
• Requirement changes—may lead to a system that does
not meet the real needs of users
• Control over the system evolution is lost
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Process Iteration

Two (related) process models

• Incremental delivery
• Spiral development
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Incremental Approach

“The software specification, design and implementation are

broken down into a series of increments that are each
developed in turn”
• System development is decomposed into increments and
each delivers a proportion of the system.
• Increments are developed based on their requirement
priorities.
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Incremental Development
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Incremental Delivery(Steps)
1. Customer identify—services provided by the system
2. Then identify which of the services are most important
and which are least important
3. No of delivery increments are then identified with sub-
set of the system functionality
4. Highest priority services delivered first
5. Requirements for the first increment are defined in
detail
6. First Increment is developed and delivered ..customer
can put into service.(Benefit for customer?)
7. During development ….further requirements analysis for
later increments can take place
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Incremental Model
Advantages:
• Customer value can be delivered with each increment so
system functionality is available earlier.
• Early increments act as a prototype to help elicit
requirements for later increments.
• Lower risk of overall project failure.
• The highest priority system services tend to receive the
most testing.
Disadvantages:
• Can be difficult to map the customer’s requirements onto
increments of the right size.
• Hard to identify common functions.
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Spiral Model
• The software process is represented as spiral, rather than
a sequence of activities with some backtracking from one
activity to another.

• Each loop in spiral represents a phase of the software

process

• Innermost loop might be concerned with system feasibility

• Next loop with requirements definition…next with system

designed and so on.
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Spiral Model
• Simplified form
– Waterfall model plus risk
analysis
• Precede each phase by
– Alternatives (build, reuse, buy,
sub-contract)
– Risk analysis (lack of
experience, new technology,
tight schedules)
• Follow each phase by
– Evaluation
– Planning of next phase
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Full Spiral Model

• If risks cannot
be resolved,
project is
immediately
terminated

• Typical
activates:
– Create a design
– Review design
– Develop code
– Inspect code
– Test product
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Spiral Model of the Software Process

Determine objectives
Evaluate alternatives
alternatives and identify, resolve risks
constraints Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis
Risk
analysis Opera-
Prototype 3 tional
Prototype 2 protoype
Risk
REVIEW analysis Proto-
type 1
Requirements plan Simulations, models, benchmarks
Life-cycle plan Concept of
Operation S/W
requirements Product
design Detailed
Requirement design
Development
plan validation Code
Design Unit test
Integration
and test plan V&V Integr ation
Plan next phase test
Acceptance
Service test Develop, verify
next-level product
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Spiral Model Sectors

Each loop in spiral is split into four sectors

Objective setting
• Specific objectives for that phase of the project are identified
• Identify Constraints  on process & product.
• Detail management plan is drawn up
• Identify Project risks
• Alternative strategies on these risks ...may be planned
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Spiral Model Sectors

Risk assessment and reduction
• For every identified risk  Detailed analysis is carried out
• Steps are taken to reduce the risk
E.g.
Risk :
Requirements are inappropriate
Solution / Strategy
A prototype system may be developed
* Risks are
• poorly understood requirements
• poorly understood architecture
• performance problems
• important missing features
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Spiral Model Sectors

Development and validation
• A development model for the system is chosen which can be
any of the generic models
• For example, if user interface risks are dominant, an
appropriate model may be “Evolutionary Prototyping”.
• Selection of model will depend on your risk analysis.
Planning
• The project is reviewed
• Decision made whether to continue with a further loop of the
spiral
• If decided to continue, the next phase of the spiral is planned
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Spiral Model(Example)
• The evolution of Microsoft Operating System, Compilers
and other operating systems.