Introduction to Power

Systems
Chapter 2: Representation of
power system components
Introduction
Review of basic concepts
 Phasors:
A sinusoidal voltage or current at constant
frequency is characterized by two parameters:
 maximum value

 phase angle

A voltage

 has maximum value: Vmax

 phase angle: δ when referenced to cosωt
The root-mean-square (rms) value, also called
effective value, of the sinusoidal voltage is

The rms phasor representation of the voltage

is given in three forms: exponential, polar and
rectangular.

Phasor diagram for converting from polar to

rectangular form
n
Summary of the relationships between
voltage and current phasors for the three
passive elements: resistor, inductor and
capacitor.
 Power in single phase ac circuits
 Instantaneous power:
The instantaneous power in watts absorbed
by an electrical load is the product of the
instantaneous voltage across the load in volts
and the instantaneous current into the load in
amperes.
Assume that load voltage is
Purely resistive load
The current into the load is in phase with the
load voltage.

Where
The instantaneous power absorbed by the
resistor
It has two parts: an average value and a
double frequency term.
Average value

Double frequency term

Purely inductive load
The current into the load lags the voltage by
90o.

Where

The instantaneous power absorbed by the

inductor is

The instantaneous power is a double frequency

sinusoid with zero average value.
 Purely capacitive load
The current into the load leads the voltage by 90 o.

Where

The instantaneous power absorbed by the

capacitor is

The instantaneous power is also a double

frequency sinusoid with zero average value.
General RLC load
For a general load composed of RLC
elements under sinusoidal steady state
excitation, the load current is of the form
The instantaneous power absorbed by the
load is
Letting

The instantaneous power has two components:

One can be associated with the power
absorbed by the resistive component of the
load, and the other can be associated with the
reactive (inductive or capacitive) component.
Real power

The average power P is also called real power or

active power.
Power factor
The term cos (δ-β) is called the power factor.
The phase angle (δ-β), which is the angle between
the voltage and current, is called the power factor
angle.
Inductive load: Lagging power factor (δ>β)
Capacitive load: Leading power factor (δ<β)
Reactive power
The instantaneous power absorbed by the reactive
part of the load is a double frequency sinusoid
with zero average value with amplitude Q given by

The term Q is given the name reactive power.

Complex power
If the phasor expressions for voltage and current
are known , the calculation of real and reactive
power is accomplished conveniently in complex
form.
 Single Phase Solution of Balanced
Three Phase Systems
Balanced Three Phase Circuits
Y Connections
Line-to-Neutral Voltages
Line-to-Line Voltages
Line Currents
Δ Loads
Δ-Y conversion
Equivalent Line-to-Neutral Diagrams
Balanced-Y Connections
Balanced Line-to-Neutral Voltages
The source line-to-neutral voltages Ean, Ebn
and Ecn are balanced when these voltages
have equal magnitudes and an equal 120 o
phase difference between any two phases.
Example: positive sequence (abc)
Balanced Line-to-Line Voltages
The voltages Eab, Ebc and Eca between phases
are called line-to-line
Similarly:

The line-to-line voltages are √3 times the line-

to-neutral voltages and lead by 30o.
The sum of the three line-to-line voltages is
zero, even if the system is unbalanced.
The sum of the three line-to-neutral voltages
for a balanced system is zero.
Balanced Line Currents

Example:
Balanced Δ Loads
Example:

The line currents:

Δ-Y Conversion for Balanced Loads
Equivalent Line-to-Neutral Diagrams
Power in Balanced Three Phase Circuits
Instantaneous and Complex Power for
Balanced Three Phase Generators
Instantaneous and Complex Power for
Balanced Three Phase Motors
Instantaneous and Complex Power for
Balanced Three Phase Y- and Δ-
Impedance Loads
Instantaneous and Complex Power for
Balanced Three Phase Generators
Instantaneous voltage and current

The instantaneous power delivered by phase

a
Similarly:
The total instantaneous power delivered by a
three phase generator is the sum of the
instantaneous powers delivered by each
phase.
The total instantaneous power delivered by a three
phase generator under balanced operating
conditions is not a function of time, but a constant,

The equations for instantaneous powers delivered

by phases of a generator are valid for instantaneous
powers absorbed by phases of a balanced three
phase motor and balanced three phase impedance
loads.
Therefore, the equation for the total instantaneous
power is valid for these loads.
Complex Power: Generators, Motors and
Y-loads
In terms of the total real and reactive powers

Where

The total apparent power is:

Complex Power: Δ-loads
Advantages of Balanced Three phase
versus Single Phase

Less capital and

operating cost
Avoids shaft vibration
and noise
The three neutral conductors can be removed
in three phase systems.
The balanced three phase system, while
delivering the same power, requires half the
number of conductors required for the three
separate single phase systems.
The total instantaneous power delivered by a
three-phase generator under steady state
conditions is constant. The input mechanical
power will be constant.
The shaft mechanical torque is nearly
The mechanical input power and the
mechanical shaft torque in single-phase
generators under steady state condition have
double frequency components that create
shaft vibration and noise, which could cause
shaft failure in large machines.
Accordingly, most generators and motors
rated 5KVA and higher are constructed as
three-phase machines in order to produce
nearly constant torque thereby minimize
shaft vibration and noise.
One-Line Diagram and Impedance or
Reactance Diagram
One-Line Diagram
Impedance Diagram
Reactance Diagram
Per Unit Representation
A key problem in analyzing power systems is
the large number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to
refer impedances to the different sides of the
transformers
This problem is avoided by a normalization of
all variables.
This normalization is known as per unit
analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
  Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1f
1. Pick a 1f VA base for the entire system, S B
2. Pick a voltage base for each different
voltage level, VB. Voltage bases are related
by transformer turns ratios. Voltages are
line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
Note, per unit conversion affects
5. Convert actual values to per unit
magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer hav
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
Per Unit Solution Procedure
1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems
are already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary
Per Unit Example
Solve for the current, load voltage and
load power
in the circuit shown below using per unit
analysis
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases
of 8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.

Original Circuit
 Left 8kV 2
ZB  0.64
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle  64
100 MVA
16kV 2
Z BRight  2.56
100 MVA
Same circuit, with
values expressed
in per unit.
 1.00
I  0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8 
   p.u.
2
VL
SL  VL I L*
 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.
To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base

V LActual  0.859  30.8 16 kV 13.7  30.8 kV

S LActual 0.1890 100 MVA 18.90 MVA
SGActual 0.2230.8 100 MVA 22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
I Middle
B  1250 Amps
80 kV
I Actual
Middle  0.22  30.8 Amps 275  30.8
 Three Phase Per Unit
Procedure is very similar to 1f except we use a 3f
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
S B3
1. Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system,
2. Pick a voltage base for each different
voltage level, VB. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base

VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
Z B  3  1
 1
SB 3S B SB
actly the same impedance bases as with single phas
 4. Calculate the current base, IB
S B3 3 S 1B S1B
I3B    I1B
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phas

5. Convert actual values to per unit

Three Phase Per Unit Example
Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the previous circuit, assuming a 3f power base of
300 MVA, and line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV,
138 kV and 27.6 kV (square root of 3 larger than
the 1f example voltages). Also assume the
generator is Y-connected so its line to line voltage is
13.8 kV.

Convert to per unit

as before. Note the
system is exactly the
same!
 1.00
I  0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8 
   p.u.
2
*VL
SL  
VL I L 0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

erences appear when we convert back to actual valu
Actual
VL  0.859  30.8 27.6 kV 23.8  30.8 kV
S LActual 0.1890 300 MVA 56.70 MVA
SGActual 0.2230.8 300 MVA 66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA
I Middle
B  1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
I Actual
Middle  0.22  30.8 Amps 275  30.8
3f Per Unit Example 2
Assume a 3f load of 100+j50 MVA with VLL
of 69 kV is connected to a source through the
below network:

What is the supply current and complex power?

Answer: I=467 amps, S = 103.3 + j76.0 MVA

Per Unit Change of MVA Base
Parameters for equipment are often given
using power rating of equipment as the MVA
base
To analyze a system all per unit data must
be on a common power
OriginalBase
base
NewBase
Z pu  Z actual  Z pu
2 2
Vbase Vbase
Hence ZOriginalBase
pu  OriginalBase
/ NewBase
Z NewBase
pu
S Base S Base
NewBase
S Base
ZOriginalBase
pu  OriginalBase
Z NewBase
pu
S Base
Per Unit Change of Base Example
A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage
reactance of 3.69%. What is the reactance on
a 100 MVA base?
100
X e 0.0369  0.0683 p.u.
54
Transformer Reactance
Transformer reactance is often specified as a
percentage, say 10%. This is a per unit value
(divide by 100) on the power base of the
transformer.
Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer
has leakage reactance of 10%. What is p.u.
value on 100 MVA base? What is value in
ohmsX(230 kV)?100
e 0.10  0.0286 p.u.
350
2
230
0.0286  15.1 
100
Three Phase Transformers
There are 4 different ways to connect 3f
transformers
Y-Y D-D
D-Y Y-D
Y-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with An/an, Bn/bn & Cn/cn

VAn VAB IA 1
a , a , 
Van Vab Ia a
Y-Y Connection: 3f Detailed Model
 Y-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections is exactly the

same as analysis of a single phase transformer.
Y-Y connections are common in transmission system
Key advantages are the ability to ground each side
and there is no phase shift is introduced.
D-D Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/ab, BC/bb & CA/ca

VAB I AB 1 I A 1
a ,  , 
Vab I ab a I a a
 D-D Connection: 3f Detailed Model

To use the per phase equivalent we need to use

the delta-wye load transformation
D-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y except

impedances are decreased by a factor of 3.

Key disadvantage is D-D connections can

not be grounded; not commonly used.
D-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/an, BC/bn & CA/cn

D-Y Connection V/I Relationships
VAB VAB
a , Van  Vab  3 Van 30
Van a
VAB 30 VAn 30
Hence Vab  3 and Van  3
a a
For current we get
I AB 1
  I a a I AB
I ab a
1
I A  3 I AB   30  I AB  I A30
3
1
 a a I A30
3
 D-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Note: Connection introduces a 30 degree phase shi

Common for transmission/distribution step-down si
there is a neutral on the low voltage side.
Even if a = 1 there is a sqrt(3) step-up ratio
Y-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Exact opposite of the D-Y connection,

now with a
phase shift of -30 degrees.