Variability

(i) Raw material used comes from different lots.

(ii) Raw materials from different batches differ in chemical composition.
(iii) Exposure to temperature, Pressure, etc.
(iv) Human element.

Types of Variation

(v) Within piece variation.

(vi) Piece to Piece variation.
(vii) Time to Time Variation.

Control Charts and SQC:

• To control the process variation, we have to use the control charts:
Process control (or) Statistics process control
• Application of control chart is Statistics process control.
• In 1924 [Link] developed SQC and Control chart.
• A control chart is a graphic comparison of process performance data to computed control
limits drawn as limit lines on the chart.
• The process performance data usually consists of groups of measurements (“rational sub-
groups”) selected in regular sequence of Production.
• Only random or common causes should be present in a process variation because this
represents the minimum Possible amount of variation.
• A process which is operating without assignable causes of variation is said to be “in state of
statistical control”.
Example include Inherent variation in incoming raw material from a qualified vendor.
lack of adequate supervision skills.
Vibration of machines.
Fluctuations in working conditions.
Management alone is responsible for common causes.
85% of all problems are due to common causes.
Solved only by action on the part of management.

Sample size(To select Sample size)

Rational sub grouping has two methods:
(i)Instant time method:
Minimum variation within a subgroup, maximum variation among the subgroup.
(ii)Period of time method:
Maximum variation within a subgroup, Minimum variation among the sub group.
The size is as small as possible to have minimum variation within a Subgroup as large as
possible to have a normal distribution.
FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING:
Samples are collected in every one hour.
• The control limits are calculated on a basis of the average + or – 3 times the standard
deviation of the statistic used.
• Usage of + or – 3σ means that if random causes alone are present, 99.7% of the charted
values will fall within the control limits.
• + or – 3σ limits are often used to distinguish between random and assignable causes of
variation.

Applications of Control charts:

• Product engineering
• To analyse test data and cost.
• In Process Engineering: To determine machine capability and Process capability .
• In production engineering: To monitor the operations.
• By inspection and Quality control to report scrap and rework, to analyse the incoming
material Quality.
• To detect assignable causes of variation in the process.
The process takes two forms:
(i) To determine whether an “unknown” process is in a state of control.
(ii) To determine whether a “Known” process remains in a state of control.
 40 35
Upper control limit(UCL)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

X X
30

X
Quality characteristic value

X X
25

X X
X Average value[center line(CL)]
20

X X
15

Lower control limit(LCL)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Sample(or Sub group) number
Examples of Quality characteristics include:
•Average length
•Average diameter
•Average tensile strength
•Average Resistance
•Average Service time

The primary use of control chart is to detect assignable cause of variation in the
process.
Process variation are traceable to two kinds of causes:
(i) Assignable causes (i.e) due to specific “findable causes” (Special).
(ii) Random or common or chance causes.

(i) Assignable or Special causes:

• Is not inherent in the process.
• It is not part of the process as designed.
• Use of a wrong tool.
• An improper raw material.
• An operator error.
• If an observation falls outside the control limits or a non random pattern is exhibited, special
causes are assumed to exist, process is said to be out of control.
• To detect the presence of special causes as soon as possible to allow appropriate corrective
action.
• 15% of all problems are due to special causes.
(ii)Random or Common or Chance causes:
• Is something inherent to a process.
• It exists as long as the process is not changed.
• Referred as a natural variation in a process.
• It is an inherent part of process design and affects all items.
• Variation is the effect of many small causes and cannot be totally eliminated.
• A process operating under a stable system of common causes is said to be in statistical
control.
• +/-2σ limits results in 4.5% of false alarms if only random causes are present.
• +/- 1σ limits results in 31.7% false alarms.

Before introducing the control charts to any organisations, some preliminary decisions
have to be made:
(1) What characteristics are to be investigated?
 Quality characteristics
e.g:- Size, Dimension and finish
 Percentage of Rejection/Rework
 Destructive testing is involved
(2) What type of control chart will serve the purpose is to be decided?
Measurement cost
Loss due to failures to detect changes in the process.
(3) No. of sub-groups
25 sub-groups are needed for good results.
Subgroup 1 X X X X X X X X̄ 1 =
2 X X X X X X X X̄ 2 X=µ=E( X̄ )
3 X X X X X X X X̄ 3

(4) Choice of measuring instruments and design of data recording forms

X̄ = Sample average [control chart for mean]

=
X= Grand average (average of sample means)

σx  Standard deviation of the process

σx̄  Standard deviation of the sample averages
σ̄ or s̄  average of the standard deviation of the samples

THREE TYPES OF CHARTS ARE USED IN CONTROL CHARTS BY VARIABLE

X-bar chart [Mean Chart]
R-Chart [Range Chart]
S or σ chart [Standard deviation Chart]
All these charts follows Normal Distribution
 Control chart for variables

X̄ Chart [Mean or Average Chart]

(1) Assume σx is known

Control limits = E(X̄ ) +/- 3σx̄

=
C.L. =X +/- 3σx̄

σx̄ =σx/√n
=
C.L. =X +/- 3(σx/√n)
=
C.L. =X +/- Aσx ; A=3/√n
 X̄ Chart

(2) Assume σx is Unknown (estimated by s̄ /c2)

=
C.L. =X +/- 3σx̄

σx̄ =σx/√n
=
C.L. =X +/- 3(σx/√n)

=
C.L. =X +/- 3(s̄ /c2√n) ; σx=s̄ /c2

=
C.L. =X +/- A1s̄ ; A1=3/c2√n
 X̄ Chart

(3) Assume σx is unknown (estimated by R ̄/d2)

R ̄ is the average of the sample ranges

=
C.L. =X +/- 3(σx/√n)

=
C.L. =X +/- 3(R ̄/d2√n); A2= 3/d2√n

=
C.L. =X +/- A2R ̄
 R [Range- Chart]

(1) Assume σx is known

C.L. = E(R) +/- 3σR
E(R)= d2σx
Here, σx = R ̄/d2
σ R= d 3 σ x
Therefore, C.L = d2σx + 3d3σx
C.L = σx[d2 +/- 3d3]
[d2 + 3d3]≈ D2
[d2 - 3d3]≈ D1

Control limits, UCL = D2σx

LCL = D1σx
 R - Chart

(2) Assume σx is Unknown, it is estimated by R ̄/d2

C.L. = E(R) +/- 3σR
= R ̄ +/- 3σR
= R ̄ +/- 3d3σx
= R ̄ +/- 3(d3/d2)R ̄
= R ̄[1 +/- 3(d3/d2)]

The control limits are, UCL = D4R ̄

LCL = D3R ̄
Where, [1+3(d3/d2)]≈D4
[1-3(d3/d2)]≈D3
σ or S [standard deviation Chart] (Always subgroup is greater than 12)

(1) Assume σx is known (Population data)

UCL = B2σx
LCL = B1σx

(2) Assume σx is unknown (Sample data)

UCL = B4s̄
LCL = B3s̄
 STARTING A CONTROL CHART

3 Critical decisions need to be made before any control chart technique can be
initiated.

(i) Sample size

 Prefer large sample size

 If homogenous, Sample size n be small

(ii) Base period

 No. of initial samples in the base period should be enough to yield a satisfactory estimate
of the distribution.

 Atleast 20 samples in the base period.

(iii) Level of significance

 Maximum probability of type 1 error or α.

 The choice of α determines the critical region.

 X̄ chart: µ^+/-3σˆ ; α = 0.0027 or 0.27%

 Process Not stable during the base period

(i) If any of the X̄ or R values during the base period were outside the control limits, it would
indicate probable lack of stability of the process.

(ii) When the process is not stable in the base period, the validity of using control limits for the
monitoring period would be questionable.

(iii) If the instability during base period is inherent in the process itself (worn out equipment,
Poor quality of materials), it is best to abandon the base – period results and reinitiate after
the inherent causes have been corrected.

(iv) If the instability is due to newness of the product or process and/or the operators not being
familiar with the product, the control limits can be derived as follows:

(a) If time permits and the observations are not very expensive, a new base period can be
started the process would probably have stabilised by this time.

(b) Check if the process is stable if the “out-of control limits” observations are eliminated.
In order to be able to adopt option 2, the following procedure is used :

(i) Start with a base period of at least 25 samples.

(ii) Calculate X̄ and R̄ . Calculate the control limits.

(iii) Check the R chart. If all the observations are within the control limits goto step 4. if some
observations are outside the UCL, remove the corresponding samples from the base period
and goto step 2.

(iv) Check the X̄ chart. If all observations are within control limits goto step – 5. If some
observations are outside the UCL, remove the corresponding samples from the base period.
If the base period has 15 or fewere samples left, abandon the base period. Otherwise goto
Step – 2.

(v) Extend the control limits to the monitoring period.

 CONTROL CHARTS FOR INDIVIDUAL UNITS [MOVING RANGE]

 Rate of Production is low.

 Testing process is destructive.

 Cost of the item is expensive.

 Sample size Chosen to be 1.

 Service application in Marketing and Accounting.

 The value of Quality characteristic is X.

 Process is estimated from the MOVING RANGE found from two successive observations.

 Moving ranges are correlated.

 Conduct an initial analysis using Frequency histograms to identify the shape of the
distribution.
 (I) NO GIVEN STANDARDS
__
An estimate of the process standard deviation, σ^ = MR/d2
__
MR is the average of the moving ranges of successive observations
__
CLMR = MR
__
UCLMR = D4MR
__
LCLMR = D3MR

X-Chart
_
CLX = X
_ ___
UCLX = X + 3 MR /d2
_ ___
LCLX = X - 3 MR /d2
(II) GIVEN STANDARDS
_
CLX = X0
_
UCLX = X0 + 3σ0
_
LCLX = X - 3σ0

CLMR = d2 σ0

UCLMR = D4d2σ0

LCLMR = D3d2σ0
 Moving Average Control Chart

• These are effective for detecting shifts of small magnitude in the process mean.

• Used in the situations for which the sample size is 1.

• Product characteristics are measured automatically.

• The time to produce a unit is long.

• Moving average values are correlated.

Suppose samples of sizes n are collected fro the process.

Let, the first t sample means be denoted by,

X1̄, X̄ 2, X̄ 3, …, X̄ t (One samle is taken for each time step)

`The moving average of width W at time step is given by,

Mt = [X̄ t+ Xt-1
̄ +…+ Xt-w+1
̄ ]/W

Var(X̄ t) = σ2/n

Where , σ^2 is the population variance of the individual values

Var(Mt) = 1/w^2[Σvar(X̄ i)] ; i=(t-w+1) to t

= 1/w^2[Σvar(σ^2/n)] ; i=(t-w+1) to t

= σ^2/nw
_
C.L= X̄
_
U.C.L= X̄ + 3σ/√nw
_ For the remaining values
LCL = X̄ - 3σ/√nw

For the startup period (When t<w)

Mt = ΣX̄ i/t ; t=1,2,…,w-1

_
U.C.L= X̄ + 3σ/√nt
_
LCL = X̄ - 3σ/√nt

t = 1,2,…,w-1
Control chart Patterns and Corrective actions
A non random identifiable pattern in the plot of control chart might provide sufficient reason
to look for special causes in the system
Special causes are due to periodic and persistent disturbances that affect the process
intermittently. The objective is to identify the special cause and take appropriate remedial
action. Totally nine patterns exists
(i) Natural Pattern
* Natural pattern is one in which no identifiable arrangement of the plotted points exists.
 No points fall outside the control limits.
 Majority of the points are near the center line.
 Few are close to the control limits.
 Demonstrate the presence of a stable system of common causes.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

Sample X X XX X X
Average X
CL

X X X X X X X X

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(ii) Sudden Shifts in the level

 Many causes can bring about a sudden change (or jump) in pattern level on an X̄ or R chart.

 Such jump occur because of changes.

 Process setting as temp, pressure or depth of cut.

 Change in customer waiting time in a bank because the No. of tellers changed.
 A new method or process, new measuring instrument, new vendors, new operator, new
equipment.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL
X X X
Sample X X X X
Average X X X CL
X X
X X
X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(iii) Gradual shifts in the level

 It occurs when a process parameter changes gradually over a period of time, after the
process stabilizes.

 An X̄ chart might exhibit such a shift because the incoming quality of raw materials or
components changed over time, Maintenance program changed or the style of supervision
changed.

 An R chart might exhibit such a shift because of new operator, a decrease in worker skill due
to fatigue or monotony.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

Sample
Average X X X X CL
X X X X
X X X X X
X X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(iv) Trending Pattern

 Represent changes that steadily increase or decrease.

 An X̄ chart may exhibit a trend because of tool wear, gradual deterioration of equipment,
build up of debris in jigs and fixtures or gradual change in temperature.

 An R-chart may exhibit a trend because of a gradual improvement in operator skill resulting
from on- the job training, or a decrease in operator skill due to fatigue.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

X X X X
Sample X X X
X X CL
Average X X X X X X X
X

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(V) Cyclic Patterns:

 Cyclic patterns are characterized by a repetitive periodic behavior in the system.

 Cycles of low and high points will appear on the control chart.

 X̄ - chart may exhibit cyclic behaviour because of rotation of operators, periodic changes in
temperature and humidity, seasonal variation of incoming components.

 An R-chart may exhibit cyclic pattern because of operator fatigue or periodic maintenance.

 Take samples frequently to investigate the possibility of a cyclic pattern.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL
X X
Sample X X X X X X
Average X

X X X X
X
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(vi)Wild patterns

(i) Freaks

(ii) Bunches (groups)

Special causes are generally associated with these points.

(iii) Freaks:

Caused by external disturbances that influence by one or more samples.

 Plotted points too small or too large with respect to control limits.

 Points usually fall outside the control limits and are easily distinguishable from the other
patterns on the chart.

 Sudden, very short – lived power failure.

 Use of a new tool for a brief test period.

 Failure of a component.
 FREAKS

X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

XX X X X
Sample X X X
X X CL
Average XX X X X X X
X X X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Bunches:

 Bunches are clusters of several observations that are different from other points on the
plot.
Possible special causes of such behavior Use of a new vendor for a short period of time.

 Use of a different machine for a brief time period.

 New operator used for a short period

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL
X X
Sample X X
Average X X X X CL
X X X X
X X X X X
X X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 (vii) MIXTURE PATTERNS (or the effect of two or more populations)
 Caused by the presence of 2 or more populations in the sample and characterized by points
that fall near the control limits.

 One set of values is too high and another set of values too low because of differences in the
incoming quality of material from two vendors.

 A remedial action would be to have a Separate control chart for each vendor.
Other example include two or more operators being represented on the same chart,
differences in two or more pieces of testing or measuring equipment and differences in
production methods of two or more lines.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

Sample X X X XX X X
Average X
CL

X X X X X X X X

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
 (viiii) STRATIFICATION FACTORS

 When two or more population distribution of the same quality characteristic are present.

 Output is combined or mixed and samples are selected from mixed output.

 Majority of the points are very close to the center line, with very few points near the control
limits.

 Have separate control chart for each shift.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

Sample
Average X X X
X X CL
X X X X
X X X X X X
X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 (ix) INTERACTION PATTERMS

 Occurs when the level of one variable affects the behavior of other variables associated with
the quality characteristics of interest.

 Combined effect is different from individual effect.

 Can be detected by changing the scheme of rational sampling.

TEMP LEVEL A

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

Sample
Average X X X
X X CL
X X X X
X X X X X X
X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 Temp level B

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- UCL

Sample X
Average X X X X CL
X X X X
X X X X X
X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LCL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 ERRORS IN MAKING INFERENCES FROM CONTROL CHARTS

There are 2 types of errors:

(i) Type I error

(ii) Type II error

These errors occurs when making inferences from control charts.

Type I error:

 Inferring that a process is out of control when it is actually in control.

 The probability of type 1 error is denoted by α.

 Type I error

Since the control limits are a finite distance from the mean, there is a small chance
(about 0.026) of a sample statistics falling outside the control limits

------------------------------------------------------------------------ UCL X̄

X̄ Center line

------------------------------------------------------------------------ LCL X̄

P(type I error) = α (It is a sum of two tail areas outside the control limits)
 Type II errors

 Inferring that a process is in control when it is really out of control.

 If no observations fall outside the control limits, we conclude that the process is in control.
(Process is actually out of control)

 A process going out of control due to a change in process mean from A to B. For this
situation , the current conclusion is that the process is out of control.

 There is a strong possibility of the sample statistic falling within the control limits, in which
case we would conclude that the process is in control and thus make a type II error.
 Type II error in control charts

B ------------------------------------------------------------------------ UCL X̄

X̄ A Center line

------------------------------------------------------------------------ LCL X̄
 OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC CURVE (O.C. CURVE)

 Is a measure of goodness of control charts ability to detect changes in process parameters.

 (Probability of type II error) Vs (the shifting of a process parameter value)

 To determine the changes of not detecting a shift of a certain magnitude in a process

parameter on a control chart.

 The shape of an OC curve is an inverted S.

 The ability of a control chart to detect changes quickly is indicated by the steepness of the
OC curve.
OC curve for a control chart
X
X
X

X
Probability of non-detection
X

X
X
X X
Process mean
 AVERAGE RUN LENGTH

 Denotes the No. of samples, on average, required to detect a out of control signal.

 Pd is the probability of an observation plotting outside the control limits.

 Run length = 1 with a probability of Pd

= 2 with a probability of (1-Pd)Pd

= 3 with a probability of (1-Pd)(1-Pd)Pd

ARL = Σj(1-Pd)(j-1)Pd
= Pd Σj(1-Pd)(j-1)
= Pd/[1-(1-Pd)]2
= 1/Pd
j = 1 to ∞

Pd = α  Type I
Pd = 1-β  Type II
 WARNING LIMITS ON CONTROL CHARTS

 The inner limits usually at 2 sigma are usually called warning limits.

 If one or more points fall between the warning limits or very close to the warning limit, we
should be suspicious that the process may not be operating properly.

 Possible action is to increase the sampling frequency.

 Use additional data in conjunction with the suspicious points to investigate the state of
control of the process.

 Warning limits increase the sensitivity of the control charts.

 They do not have a precise interpretation and may be confusing to operating personnel.
 An X̄ chart with Z-σ Warning limits

UCL

UWL
3 σx
Quality characteristics
2 σx
Center line

LWL

LCL

Sample number
Effect of sample size on Control limits

 Sample size usually has influence on the σ of the sample statistics being plotted on the
control chart.

 An increase in the Sample size cause the control limits to be drawn closer.

 Decreasing the sample size causes he limits to expand.

 Increasing the sample size provides more information, causes the sample statistics to have
less variability.
ANALYSIS OF PATTERNS IN CONTROL CHARTS

Some rules for identifying an Out-of-control Process

(i) A process is assumed to be out of control if a single point plots outside the control limits.

(ii) A process is assumed to be out of control if 2 out of 3 consecutive points fall outside the 2σ
warning limits on the same side of center line.

(iii) A process is assumed to be out of control if 4 out of the consecutive points fall beyond the
1σ limit on the same side of the center line.

(iv) A process is assumed to be out of control if 9 or more consecutive points fall to one side of
the center line.

(v) A process is assumed to be out of control if there is a run of 6 or more consecutive points
steadily increasing or decreasing.
 X
--------------------------------------------------- UCL
X

X X
X
X CL
Quality characteristic X X
value X
X

--------------------------------------------------- LCL

Sample (1)
 --------------------------------------------------- UCL
X X
--------------------------------------------------- WL
X X
X
X X CL
Quality characteristic
X X X
value
--------------------------------------------------- WCL
--------------------------------------------------- LCL

Sample (2)
 --------------------------------------------------- UCL
X X
X
--------------------------------------------------- 1σ limit
X
X CL
Quality characteristic X
value
---------------------------------------------------
X X X 1σ limit
X
--------------------------------------------------- LCL

Sample (3)
 --------------------------------------------------- UCL

X X
X X
X X
X X CL
Quality characteristic
value X

--------------------------------------------------- LCL

Sample (4)
 TREND CHART (Regression control chart)

 Tool wear or die wear – the characteristic of interest is expected to gradually increase or
decrease.

 Center line = Horizontal will slope upward / downward

C= a + bi

a = [(ΣX̄ )(Σi2)-(ΣX̄ i)(Σi)]/[g Σi2 – (Σi)2]

b = [g(ΣX̄ i)-(ΣX̄ )(Σi)]/ [g Σi2 – (Σi)2]

where, C is the fitted value of sample average for sample I

a is the interaction point of the fitted center line with vertical axis

b is the slope of the fitted center line

i is the sample number

X̄ is the sample average for sample I

g is the No. of samples

Control limits = (a± A R̄ ) + bi

 Sample
LSL a
A2R̄
----
----
----
-- ---- A2R̄
-
---- ----
---- -- ----
---- ----
Sample average
---- ----
---- ----
-- ---- ----
---- ----
---- -- ----
---- ----
---- ----
----
LCL
----
CL UCL ----
----
USL
MULTIVARIATE CONTROL CHARTS

 Controlling both characteristics of a quality. Controlling several related quality characteristics.

 2 Quality characteristics that must both be in control for the process to be in control.

 If control charts for the averages of these 2 characteristics are kept independently, the result
is a rectangular control region.
Mean Characteristic 2(X̄ 2)

UCL X̄ 2 x-----------------------------------------
---------------------------------

---------------------------------
B C

Rectangular control region when

LCL X̄ 2 x----------------------------------------- control charts are constructed
A D
independently

LCL X̄ 1 UCL X̄ 1
Mean Characteristic 1 (X̄ 1)
 Elliptical Control Region

-----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------
Region E
Mean Characteristic 2(X̄ 2)

UCL X̄ 2 x Region F
Region G Ellipse C

- Ellipse A
X̄ 2 A D

Ellipse B
LCL X̄ 2 x-------------------------------------------------------

- UCL X̄ 1
LCL X̄ 1
X̄ 1
Mean Characteristic 1 (X̄ 1)
 Elliptical Control Region

 Diagram shows variables are positively correlated.

 Used rectangular region as the control region (error).

 If X̄ 1 or X̄ 2 falls in region E/F, process is in control.

 A point in region G, within rectangular, process is out of control.

 Chart is based on type I error.

Type I error for joint control procedure = α’ = 1-(1-α)p

4 independent characteristics the overall Type I error probability (α’)

 α’ = 1-(0.9974)4
= 0.0104
Hotelling T^2 control chart and its variations

Assume 2 quality characteristics X1 & X2. Jointly distributed according to a bivariate

normal distribution.

_ _
Target mean value of the characteristics = X̄ 1 & X̄ 2

Sample means = X̄ 1 & X̄ 2

Sample variance = S1^2 & S2^2

Co – Variance between two variables = S12

Sample size= n
_ _ _ _
T^2 = {n/(S1^2S2^2-S12^2)}{S2^2(X̄ 1 - X1
̄ )^2 + S1^2(X̄ 2- X̄ 2)^2 – 2S12(X̄ 1- X̄ 1)(X̄ 2- X̄ 2)}

(n-1) degrees of freedom

 If calculated value T^2 exceeds T^2 α,n-1 = Atleast one of the characteristic is out of control.

 If variables are independent, Co – variance S12 = 0

 Control ellipse = A
Joint control region area = A

 If two variables are positively correlated, S12>0, control ellipse = C

 If variables are negatively correlated, S12 < 0, Control ellipse = B

Disadvantages

(i) Time sequence of plotted points (X̄ 1 , X̄ 2) is lost (Cannot check runs in the plotted pattern
as with control chart).

(ii) Construction of control ellipse becomes quite difficult for more than 2 characteristics.
 Values of Hotelling T^2 percentile points can be obtained from the percentile points
of the F – distribution

T^2 α,p, (n-1) = p[(n-1)/(n-p)] Fα,p,n-p

If more than 2 characteristics are considered, value of T^2 is

_ _
T^2 = n(X̄ – X̄)’S^(-1)(X̄ - X̄)

where, X̄ is vector of sample means of P characters

n is the sample size

_
X̄ is the vector of target value of each characteristic

S is the variance – Co variance matrix of p quality characteristic

UCL = [(mnp-mp-np+p)/(mn-m-p+1)]Fα, p, n-p

m is the No. of samples

If the value of T^2 for the j^th sample (T^2j)>UCL

= it is treated as an out of control point
To cal, T^2j, the vector of sample means

X̄ 1j

X̄ j = j = 1,….m
X̄ 2j
.
.

X̄ pj
Where, X̄ ij is the sample mean of i^th character of j ^th sample

X̄ ij = Σxijk /n, I = 1,2,….p

j = 1,2,….m
k = 1 to n

Xijk is the value of K^th observation of the i^th character in the j^th sample

Sample variance = S^2ij =[1/(n-1)]Σ(Xijk- X̄ ij)^2 , i= 1,2,…p

j = 1,2,…m
 Co – variance between character i and character h in the j ^th sample

Sihj =[1/(n-1)][Σ(Xijk - X̄ ij)(Xhjk- X̄ hj)] ; j = 1,2,…m

k = 1 to n
I≠n
_
Vector X̄ of target means of each character for m samples
_
X̄ I = Σ X̄ ij /m ; i= 1,2,…p
` j= 1 to m

Elements of variance – covariance matrix for m samples

S^2i = ΣS^2 ij/m ; i= 1,2,…p

j = 1 to m

Sih = Σsihj/m ; I ≠ h S1^2 S12 S13 …..

j = 1 to m
S2^2 S23 …..
_ _
Vector X̄ = Elements {X̄ i} and matrix is

S=
 _ _
Vector X̄ = Elements {X̄ i} and matrix is

S1^2 S12 S13 ….. S1p

S2^2 S23 ….. Sp
.
S= .
.
Sp^2

If the probability of type I error for a joint control process is α, then for sample j, the
individual control interval for the i^th quality characteristics,
_
X̄ ± tα/2p , m(n-1) Si√[(m-1)/mn] ; i= 1,2,…p
CONTROL CHARTS FOR MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION

 A standard deviation chart (S-chart) is preferable for longer sample sizes (> 10, usually).

 R- chart is less effective for large samples.

 Sample standard deviation serves as a better measure of process variability in these

circumstances.

 Sample standard deviation is given by,

S = √[Σ(Xi- X̄ )^2/((n-1)]

= √[{Σxi^2 - (ΣXi)^2/n}/(n-1)] ; i= 1 to n

σ is the population standard deviation

Sample standard deviation = E(S) = C4σ

σ s = σ √(1-C4^2)

C4 = [2/(n-1)]^(1/2)[{(n-2)/2}!/{(n-3)/2}!]
Assume σ s is unknown

Center line for a standard deviation chart = CLs = S̄ = Σsi /g ; I = 1 to g

g is the No. of samples

Si is the standard deviation of the i^th sample

UCL s = S̄ + 3σs = S̄ + 3σ√(1-C4^2)

An estimate of the population standard deviation σ is

σˆ =S̄ /C4

UCLs = S̄ + 3(S̄ /C4)√(1-C4^2) =S̄ [1+{3√(1-C4^2)/C4} ] = S̄B4

LCLs = S̄ - 3(S̄ /C4)√(1-C4^2) =S̄ [1-{3√(1-C4^2)/C4} ] = S̄ B3

Therefore,

UCLs = S̄ B4

LCLs = S̄ B3
 _
Center line of X̄ chart = C.L X̄ = X̄ = ΣX̄ i/g
_ _
Control limits = X̄ ± 3σX̄ = X̄ ±3σ/√n
_ _
UCL X̄ = X̄ + 3S̄ /C4√n = X̄ + A3S̄
_ _
LCL X̄ = X̄ - 3S̄ /C4√n = X̄ - A3S̄

where, [A3 = 3/C4√n]

 The S-chart is constructed first.

 Only f its is in control should the X̄ - chart be developed because the the standard deviation
of X̄ is dependent of S̄ .

 Assume σx is known,

σo = target standard deviation

S – chart center line = CLs = C4σo

UCLs = C4σo + 3σs = C4σo + 3σo√(1-C4^2) = [C4 + 3√(1-C4^2)]σo = B6 σo

where, B6 = C4 + 3√(1-C4^2)

LCLs = [C4 - 3√(1-C4^2)]σo = B5 σo

Therefore, UCLs = B6σo

LCLs = B5σo

If the target value for the mean = X̄ 0

the center line = CLX̄ = X̄ o

UCLX̄ = X̄ o + Aσo

LCLX̄ = X̄ o - Aσo

where, A = 3/√n
CONTROL CHARTS FOR INDIVIDUAL UNITS

 Rate of production is low.

 Testing process is destructive and the cost of item is expensive.

 Every manufacturing unit from a process is inspected.

 Assume σ^ is unknown (σ^ is process standard deviation)

σ^ = MR̄ /d2 (MR is moving range of averages of successive observations)

 the center line and control limits of MR-chart are

CLMR = MR̄̄

UCLMR = D4MR̄̄

LCLMR = D3MR̄̄

 Center line of X-chart is CLX =X̄

Control limits of X-chart are

UCLX = X̄ + 3 MR̄ /d2

LCLX = X̄ - 3 MR̄ /d2

Assume σo is known,

X – Chart

CLX =X̄ o

UCLX = X̄ o + 3σo

LCLX = X̄ o - 3σo

MR – Chart

CLMR = d2σo

UCLMR = D4d2σo

LCLMR = D3d2σo
CUMULATIVE SUM CONTROL CHART FOR THE PROCESS MEAN (cumsum)

CUMSUM chart uses information from all of the prior samples by displaying the
cumulative sum of the deviation of the sample values from a specified target value.

Sm = Σ(X̄ I - µo) ; i= 1 to m (Cum sum at sample number m)

X̄ I is the sample mean for sample i

µo is the target mean of the process

 In detecting relatively small shifts in the process mean.

Disadvantages:

 It can be slow to detect large changes in the process parameters.

 Not an effective tool in analysing the historical performance of a process to see whether it is
in control.

 To train workers to use and maintain cumsum charts may be more costly.