MODULE - IV

Transient response
(using Laplace transform)
 In general, it is necessary to analyse the complete
response of the system to determine its performance, namely

 Speed of response (transient performance)

 Error (steady state performance)

for standard inputs.

However, the equations of the system may be integro-

differential.

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What is the difference between three circuits?

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 Time domain analysis

The dynamic behavior of a system is judged under application

of standard test signals –
an impulse,
a step,
a constant velocity (Ramp), and
constant acceleration (Parabolic).

The output of the system for time domain signal (time

dependent signal) is called as time response.

The time response of any system has two components:

transient response and the steady-state response.
Graph of Standard test signals

a) Step signal:
r (t )  Au (t ).

b) Ramp signal: r (t )  At ; t  0.
c) Parabolic signal: r (t )  At 2 / 2; t  0.
d) Impulse signal: r (t )  (t ).
Laplace transform, an analytical tool for analyzing electric circuits.

Advantages of LT:

1. It can be applied to circuits with sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal inputs.

2. It provides an easy way to solve circuit problems involving initial
conditions, because it allows us to work with algebraic equations
instead of differential equations.
3. Through Transfer Function, it is capable of providing the total
response of the circuit comprising both the natural and forced
responses.

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Steps in applying the Laplace transform:

1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s domain.

2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source

transformation, superposition, or any circuit analysis technique
with which we are familiar.

3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the
solution in the time domain.

10/05/25 9
 Transform the circuit from the time domain to s domain

Resistive circuit
in time domain in frequency domain

impedance

V (s)
Z ( s )  R
I (s)

v(t ) Ri(t ) L[v(t )] L[ Ri(t )] V ( s ) RI ( s )

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 Inductive circuit

in time domain in frequency domain

impedance

V (s)
Z ( s ) sL
I (s)

di(t ) di(t )
v(t )  L L [v(t )] L [ L ] V ( s ) sLI ( s )
dt dt
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 Capacitive circuit
in time domain in frequency domain

impedance

V (s) 1
Z ( s ) 
I (s) sC

I ( s ) sCV ( s )
dv(t ) dv(t )
i(t ) C L [i(t )] L [C ]
dt dt 1
V (s)  I (s)
sC
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P.1: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, assuming zero initial conditions.

Applying laplace transform to the circuit elements

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In frequency domain

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P.2: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, assuming zero initial conditions.

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P.3: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, assuming zero initial conditions.

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P.4: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, assuming zero initial conditions.

P.5: Find i(t) in the circuit with v = Vmcos(t), assuming zero initial conditions.

10/05/25 18
 Vm s 2 Vm s 2 A B C D
I (s)  2 2
 2 2
 2
 2
 
( s  1) (s  j) (s  j) (s  j) (s  j) (s  j) (s  j)

A I ( s )( s  j ) 2
s  j
Vm

4
V
B  A*  m
4
d

C  I ( s )( s  j ) 2
ds
 s  j
Vm  (e jt  e  jt ) (e jt  e  jt ) 
Vm i (t )   2t  j(2 j ) 
j 4 2 2j
4  
Vm Vm
*
D C  j i(t )  t cos t  sin t 
4 2
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 With Initial conditions

df (t )
L[ ] sF ( s )  f (0  )
dt

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 Inductive circuit
in time domain in frequency domain
with
initial current

di (t )
L [v(t )] L [ L ]
dt

di(t )
v(t )  L or
dt

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Converting voltage to current

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 in time domain
Capacitive
circuit with in frequency domain
initial voltage

dv(t )
L [i(t )] L [C ]
dt
dv(t ) or
i(t ) C
dt
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Converting voltage to current

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P.1: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, assuming the switch is closed at t = 0
and vo(0) = 5 V.

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With capacitor initial voltage

Converting voltage to current

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 Nodal equation

Taking partial fraction

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P.2: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, the switch is closed at t=0 and initial
current through inductor is -2A.

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P.3: Find vo(t) in the circuit in Fig, the switch is closed at t=0 and initial
current through inductor is 4 A.

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P.4: Find v(t) and i(t) given that v(0) = 5 and i(0) = −2 A.

Current through inductor alone

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P.5: For the circuit, find the value of the voltage across the capacitor
assuming that the value of Vs(t)=10 u(t) V and assume that at t=0, -1A
flows through the inductor and +5V is across the capacitor..

10/05/25 32
 MODULE - V
Network function
and
Frequency response
 TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

The transfer function H(s) is the ratio of the output

response Y(s) to the input excitation X(s), assuming all initial
conditions are zero.

System

The transfer function is a key concept in signal processing

because it indicates how a signal is processed as it passes through a
network. It is a fitting tool for finding the network response,
determining (or designing for) network stability, and network
synthesis. The transfer function of a network describes how the
output behaves in respect to the input. It specifies the transfer from
the input to the output in the s domain, assuming no initial energy.

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 The transfer function depends on what we define as input and
output. Since the input and output can be either current or voltage at
any place in the circuit, there are four possible transfer functions:

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 The transfer function is usually a rational function of two
polynomials in the complex variable s = σ + jω

M m 2 2
Ks ( s  Z1 )( s  Z 2 ) ( s  2n s  n )
H (S )  N n 2 2
s ( s  P1 )( s  P2 ) ( s  2n s  n )

The roots of numerator polynomial are called zeros as

they make transfer function equal to zero.
The roots of denominator polynomial are called poles as
they make transfer function equal to infinity.

( s  Z1 )( s  Z 2 ) . . .( s  Z m )
H (s) 
( s  P1 )( s  P2 ) . . .( s  Pn )
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 In general, the poles and zeros of a transfer function may be
complex, and the system dynamics may be represented graphically
by plotting their locations on the complex s-plane, whose axes
represent the real and imaginary parts of the complex variable s. Such
plots are known as pole-zero plots.
It is usual to mark a zero location by a circle (o) and a pole location
a cross (×). The location of the poles and zeros provide qualitative insights
into the response characteristics of a system.

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 STABILITY

Stability is defined as the ability of a system to come back to steady

state under a disturbance.

 A circuit/system is said to be stable when the transient response

decays to zero as time progresses.

 An unstable circuit/system never reaches steady state because

the transient response does not decay to zero.

 The quantitative analysis of stability requires the estimation of

response as a function of time.

Pole-zero plot is a qualitative method to determine the stability of the

system.

A system can be stable only when all the poles and zeros of its
transfer function H(s) lie in the left half of the s plane.

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For step input, the response is For step input, the response is

Pole-zero plot Pole-zero plot

Time response
Time response

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P.6: Draw the pole-zero plot of the transfer function

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P.8: Find H(s) = Vo(s)/Vs(s). Assume zero initial conditions. Mark the poles
and zeros in s-plane.

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P.10: Determine the transfer function H(s) = V0(s)/ I0(s) of the circuit in
Fig
I0 1Ω V1 I 2 1/ 2s V0 ( s )
?
I 0 (s)
s I1
+ V0 ( s )
V(s) 2Ω V0 ?
Vs ( s )
4Ω -

I 2 (s)
?
I 0 (s)

I1 ( s )
?
I 0 (s)

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By voltage division

Substituting V1

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P.11: Find H(s) = Vo(s)/Is(s). Assume zero initial conditions. Mark the poles
and zeros in s-plane.

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P.12: Find the transfer functions. Assume zero initial conditions. Mark the
poles and zeros in s-plane. Determine the stability.

Given circuit

V0 ( s ) V0 ( s ) I 0 (s)
? ? ?
Vs ( s ) I s (s) I s (s)

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Converting the given circuit to s domain

V Vo

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P.13: Find E1(s)/Iin and E2(s)/Iin

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P.14: Find Vx/Vi

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 SERIES RESONANCE
Resonance occurs in any circuit that has at least one inductor
and one capacitor.
Resonant circuits (series or parallel) are useful for constructing
filters, as their transfer functions (impedance or admittance) can be
highly frequency selective. They are used in many applications such
as selecting the desired stations in radio and TV receivers.

Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive

and inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a
purely resistive impedance.

Resonance results when the imaginary part of the impedance is

zero.
* 55
The response curves of the inductive reactance XL, capacitive
reactance XC and impedance Z versus frequency f are illustrated in
Figure

* 56
Thus, the resonance condition is

Since ω0 = 2πf0,

The antenna circuit consists of LCR circuit. The value of C is varied till
the resonant frequency is equal to the particular frequency from any
radio station. At this stage, the current through the circuit is maximum
and the receiver responds to the incoming signals. For this reason, such
circuits are called acceptor circuits, as these accept those signals for
which current reaches peak value.
* 57
 58
Phase Angle

*
Relation
* 59
At resonance:

1. The impedance is purely resistive, thus, Z = R. In other words,

the LC series combination acts like a short circuit, and the
entire voltage is across R.

2. The voltage Vs and the current I are in phase, so that the power
factor is unity.

3. The magnitude of Z(ω) is minimum.

* 60
 Current
magnitude

Half Power Frequencies

Dissipated power is half of
the maximum value.

Filter output is
considered
Upto 70.7% of
maximum output

BANDWIDTH: In general, it is the range of frequencies for which

the magnitude of output (current or voltage) is greater than or equal to
70.7% of output at resonant frequency.

* 61
The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is

The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance, when I = Vm/R, so

that

At frequencies ω = ω1, ω2, the dissipated power is half the maximum

value; that is,

Hence, ω1 and ω2 are called the half-power frequencies.

* 62
* 63
* 64
At ω1,

At ω2,

Equating the above two

equations

wher
e

relating the half-power frequencies with the resonant frequency.

Resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the half power

frequencies.
* 65
 As the bandwidth is taken between the two -3dB points, the
selectivity or sharpness of the circuit is a measure of its ability to
reject any frequencies either side of these points.

Bandwidth can be defined as the range of frequencies over which

the power is greater than or equal to 1/2 times the maximum power

A more selective circuit will have a narrow bandwidth whereas a

less selective circuit will have a wide bandwidth.

A "quality factor" Q is a measure of selectivity or sharpness,

and a circuit has "high Q" if it is more narrowly selective (i.e narrow
bandwidth).

At resonance, the reactive energy in the circuit oscillates

between the inductor and the capacitor. The quality factor relates the
maximum or peak energy stored to the energy dissipated in the circuit
per cycle of oscillation:

* 66
 It is also regarded as a measure of the energy storage property
of a circuit in relation to its energy dissipation property.

In the series RLC circuit, the peak energy stored is ,

while the energy dissipated in one period is .

Hence,

The quality factor is

dimensionless.
The relationship between the
bandwidth B and the quality factor Q
is,

* 67
 The selectivity of a series resonance circuit can be controlled by
adjusting the value of the resistance only, keeping all the other
components the same, since Q = (XL or XC)/R.

* 68
* 69
 PARALLEL RESONANCE
⮚ Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and
inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, resulting in a purely resistive
impedance.
⮚ Parallel resonance circuit behaves similarly but in opposite fashion compared
to series resonant circuit.
⮚ The admitance is minimum at resonance or impedance is maximum.

* 70
* 71
The half-power frequencies can be obtained as:

* 72
 Summary of series and parallel resonance
circuits:
Characteristic Series circuit Parallel circuit

ωo

ω1, ω2

Q ≥ 10, ω1, ω2

* 73
This formula is applicable to series resonant circuits, and also parallel
resonant circuits if the resistance is in series with the inductor.

This formula is applicable to parallel circuits, for a large value of R in

parallel with C and L.

In a parallel LC circuit where the main loss is the resistance of the

inductor, R, in series with the inductance, L, Q is as in the series circuit.
This is a common situation for resonators, where limiting the resistance of
the inductor to improve Q and narrow the bandwidth is the desired result.

* 74
P25a

P25b

* 75
Calculate the BW of the filter circuit shown in Figure

A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series across

at a 100 V variable frequency supply source, as shown in Figure. At a
frequency of 100 Hz, the circuit resonates and the current is 0.8 A.
At resonance, the voltage across the capacitor is measured as 200 V.
Determine the values of r, L and C.
P26.
A series-connected circuit has R = 4 & and L = 25 mH. (a) Calculate the
value of C that will produce a quality factor of 50. (b) Find ω1, ω2, and B.
(c) Determine the average power dissipated at ω0, ω1 and ω2. Take Vm =
100 V.

Answer: (a) 0.625 µF, (b) 7920 rad/s, 8080 rad/s, 160 rad/s, (c) 1.25 kW,
0.625 kW, 0.625 kW.

* 77
P26.
In the given parallel RLC circuit, R = 10 kΩ, L = 0.25 mH, and C = 10 µF.
(a) Calculate ω0, Q, and B. (b) Find ω1 and ω2. (c) Determine the power
dissipated at ω0, ω1, and ω2.

Solution:

* 78
a)

b) Due to the high value of Q, we can regard this as a high-Q circuit.

Hence,

* 79
c)

Since the entire current flows through R at resonance, the average

power dissipated at ω = ω0 is

* 80
A constant voltage at a frequency of 1 MHz is applied to an inductor in
series with a variable capacitor. When the capacitor is set to 500 pF, the
current has its maximum value while it is reduced to one-half when the
capacitance is 600 pF. Find resistance, inductance and Q-factor of
inductor.

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Impedance of a circuit is observed to be capacitive and decreasing from 1
Hz to 100 Hz. Beyond 100 Hz, the impedance starts increasing. Find the
values of circuit elements if the power drawn by this circuit is 100 W at 100
Hz, when the current is 1 A. The power factor of the circuit at 70 Hz is
0.707.

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A series RLC circuit has R = 10 Ω and L = 60 mH. At a frequency of 25 Hz,
the power factor angle of the circuit is 60° lead. At what frequency will the
circuit be resonant?

10/05/25 87
P27.
It is expected that a parallel RLC resonant circuit has a midband
admittance of 25 × 10-3 S, quality factor of 80, and a resonant
frequency of 200 krad/s. Calculate the values of R, L, and C. Find the
bandwidth and the half-power frequencies.

* 88
* 89
P28.

Z1= 12 - j20.0639Ω = 23.3786∠-59.1°Ω

Z2= 12 + j17.884 Ω = 21.5369∠56.1°Ω

The circuit parameters R, L and C are,

R = 20Ω ; L = 1.0903 H and C = 27.2575μF

* 90
P29.
A parallel resonance circuit has a resistance of 2 kΩ and half-power
frequencies of 86 kHz and 90 kHz. The circuit is supplied by a source of
200 A. Determine:
(a) Capacitance and inductance
(b) resonant frequency
(c) Supply current and current through inductor and capacitor at
resonance
(d) bandwidth
(e) quality factor

* 92
P30 challenging problem

Determine resonance frequency, bandwidth and quality factor

Resonance frequency = 1.414 krad/sec

* 93
P31. challenging problem

Calculate the resonant frequency of the

circuit

Answer: 2.179 rad/s.

Derive impedance or admittance function of the given circuit and equate

imaginary part to zero.

* 94
P32. challenging problem
The impedance Z1=5+j3 Ω and Z2=10-j30 Ω are connected in parallel.
Find the value of X which will produce resonance at the terminals a and
b

Ans: 2.07Ω

* 95
P33.
It is expected that a parallel RLC resonant circuit has a midband
admittance of 25 × 103 S, quality factor of 80, and a resonant frequency
of 200 krad/s. Calculate the values of R, L, and C. Find the bandwidth
and the half-power frequencies.

P34.
Find the resonant frequency, Quality factor

* 96
P35. challenging problem
For the circuit in Fig, find: (a) the resonant frequency ω0 (b) Zin(ω)

Ans: 2.357 krad/sec

* 97
Principles of Basic Passive
Filtering
 A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired
frequencies and reject or attenuate others. As a frequency-selective
device, a filter can be used to limit the frequency spectrum of a signal
to some specified band of frequencies. Filters are the circuits used in
radio and TV receivers to allow us to select one desired signal out of a
multitude of broadcast signals in the environment. multiple

A filter is a passive filter if it consists of only passive elements R, L,

and C. It is said to be an active filter if it consists of active elements
(such as transistors and op amps) in addition to passive elements R, L,
and C.

10/05/25 99
There are four types of filters whether passive or active:

1. A lowpass filter passes low

frequencies and stops high
frequencies, as shown ideally in Fig.

2. A highpass filter passes high

frequencies and rejects low
frequencies, as shown ideally in Fig.

3. A bandpass filter passes frequencies

within a frequency band and blocks or
attenuates frequencies outside the
band, as shown ideally in Fig.

4. A bandstop filter passes frequencies

outside a frequency band and blocks
or attenuates frequencies within the
band, as shown ideally in Fig.

10/05/25 100
 Lowpass Filter

Note that H(0) = 1, H(∞) = 0.

The half-power frequency, which is
equivalent to the corner frequency on
the Bode plots but in the context of
filters is usually known as the cutoff
frequency ωc, is obtained by setting
the magnitude of H(ω) equal to 1/√2,
thus

10/05/25 101
 Highpass Filter
A highpass filter is formed when the output of an RC circuit is
taken off the resistor as shown in Fig. The transfer function is

Note that H(0) = 0, H(∞) = 1.

Again, the corner or cutoff frequency is

10/05/25 102
 Bandpass Filter
The RLC series resonant circuit
provides a band pass filter when the
output is taken off the resistor as
shown in Fig. The transfer function is

We observe that H(0) = 0, H(∞) = 0.

Figure shows the plot of |H(ω)|. The
bandpass filter passes a band of
frequencies (ω1 < ω < ω2) centered
on ω0, the center frequency, which is
given by

10/05/25 103
 Bandstop Filter

A filter that prevents a band of

frequencies between two designated
values (ω1 and ω2) from passing is
variably known as a bandstop,
bandreject, or notch filter. A bandstop
filter is formed when the output RLC
series resonant circuit is taken off the LC
series combination as shown in Fig. The
transfer function is

Again, the center frequency is given by

10/05/25 104
P.1: Determine what type of filter is shown in Fig. Calculate the corner or
cutoff frequency. Take R = 2 k&, L = 2 H, and C = 2 µF.

10/05/25 105
The corner frequency is the same as the half-power frequency, i.e.,
where H is reduced by a factor of 1√2. Since the dc value of H(ω) is 1,
at the corner frequency, H function after squaring

10/05/25 106
P.2: Obtain the transfer function Vo(ω)/Vi(ω). Identify the type of filter
the circuit represents and determine the corner frequency. Take R1 =
100 & = R2, L = 2 mH.

10/05/25 107
P.3: If a series RLC bandstop filter is to reject a 200-Hz sinusoid while
passing other frequencies, calculate the values of L and C. Take R = 150
Ω & and the bandwidth as 100 Hz.

Rejection of the 200-Hz sinusoid means that f0 is 200 Hz

P.4: Design a series bandpass filter of the form, with a lower cutoff
frequency of 20.1 kHz and an upper cutoff frequency of 20.3 kHz. Take R
= 20 k&. Calculate L, C, and Q.
15.92 H, 3.9 pF, 101.

10/05/25 108
 T-NETWORK

Π NETWORK

10/05/25 125
 CONSTANT-k LOW PASS FILTER

A T or Π network is said to be of the constant k type if Z1 and Z2 are

opposite types of reactances satisfying the relation

where k is a constant, independent of frequency. k is often referred to as

design impedance or nominal impedance of the constant-k filter. The
constant-k, T or Π-type filter is also known as the prototype filter because
other complex networks can be derived from it. Figure shows constant-k,
T and Π -section filters.

10/05/25 126
Hence, the pass band starts at f = 0 and continues up to the cut-off
frequency fc. All the frequencies above fc are in the attenuation or
stop band.

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10/05/25 130
Design of Filter

10/05/25 131
1. A low-pass filter is composed of a symmetrical Π section. Each series
branch is a 0.02 H inductor and shunt branch is a 2 μF capacitor. Find
(a) cut-off frequency, (b) nominal impedance, (c) characteristic
impedance at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz, (d) attenuation at 200 Hz and
2000 Hz, and (e) phase shift constant at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz.

2. Each of the two series elements of a T-section low-pass filter consists

of an inductor of 60 mH having negligible resistance and a shunt
element having a capacitance of 0.2 μF. Calculate (a) the cut-off
frequency, (b) nominal impedance, and (c) characteristic impedance
at frequencies of 1 kHz and 5 kHz.

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 CONSTANT-k HIGH-PASS FILTER

10/05/25 133
10/05/25 134
10/05/25 135
1. A high-pass filter section is constructed from two capacitors of 1 μF
each and a 15 mH inductance. Find (a) cut-off frequency, (b) infinite
frequency characteristic impedance, (c) characteristic impedance at
200 Hz and 2000 Hz, (d) attenuation at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz, and (e)
phase constant at 200 Hz and 2000 Hz.

2. Design a constant-k high-pass T and p sections filters having a cut-off

frequency of 2000 Hz and infinite frequency characteristic impedance
of 300 Ω.

10/05/25 136