Course : CSE3003

title : Computer
Course Networks
title :2
Module :3
Topic Encoding Techniques

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Objectives

This session will give the knowledge

about
• Data Encoding Techniques
• Analog data to Analog
signals
• Analog data to Digital
signals
• Digital data to Analog
signals
• Digital data to Digital
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signals Dr. S.
Gopikrishnan
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Encoding and Signalling

• Encoding and signaling are the main functions of physical layer

one of the
OSI reference model.

• At the data-link layer, frames are in the form of bits (zeros and
ones), but when they get down to the physical layer, they get
turned into other formats that the physical layer understands ; in
this case they are transformed into signals, because they need
to be carried through cables and devices, which reside at the
same layer, hence encoding and signaling.

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Encoding and Signalling

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Representing bits on media

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Representing bits on media

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Analog and Digital Transmissions

The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to

computer
call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.

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Encoding Techniques

• Analog data to Analog signals: The modulation techniques

such as Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and
Phase Modulation of analog signals, fall under this category.

• Analog data to Digital signals: This process can be termed as

digitization, which is done by Pulse Code Modulation PCM.
Sampling and quantization are the important factors in this.
Delta Modulation gives a better output than PCM.

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Encoding Techniques

• Digital data to Analog signals: The modulation techniques

such as Amplitude Shift Keying ASK, Frequency Shift Keying
FSK, Phase Shift Keying PSK, etc., fall under this category.

• Digital data to Digital signals: Digital-to-digital encoding is the

representation of digital information by a digital signal. When
binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into
a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a
wire, this process is known as digital- to-digital encoding.

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 Analog data to Analog
signals

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Analog Data to Analog Signal
Encoding
• Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog
information by an analog signal. One may ask why we need to
modulate an analog signal; it is already analog. Modulation is
needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a
bandpass channel is available to us.

• Amplitude Modulation

• Frequency Modulation

• Phase Modulation

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Amplitude modulation

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Frequency modulation

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Phase modulation

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Band allocation

• The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the

bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.

• AM Band

• FM
Band

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Summary

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 Analog data to Digital signals

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Analog data to Digital signal Encoding

• When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-

digital
conversion.

• Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal,

we need to digitalize the analog signal which is less prone to
noise. It requires a reduction in the number of values in an
analog message so that they can be represented in the digital
stream.

• In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a

continuous wave form is converted in digital pulses.
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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

• PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates

a series of digital pulses based on the result of sampling where
sampling means measuring the amplitude of a signal at equal
intervals.

• PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it

translates the original wave form into pulses, but these
pulses are not digital. To make them digital, PAM technique is
modified to PCM technique.

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

PCM technique is used to modify

the pulses created by PAM to form
a digital signal. To achieve this,
PCM quantizes PAM pulses.
Quantization is a process of
assigning integral values in a
specific range to sampled
instances.

PCM is made of four separate

processes: PAM, quantization,
binary encoding, and digital-to-
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digital encoding.
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Components of PCM encoder

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital

data is called pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has
the following three processes:

• Sampling

• Quantization

• Encoding

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PCM: Sampling

Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a

process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time
signal at discrete instants, converting the continuous signal
into a discrete signal. There are three sampling methods:

1. Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous

sampling pulses from the analog signal are sampled. This is an
ideal sampling method and cannot be easily implemented.

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PCM: Sampling

2. Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of

sampling in which pulse have finite width equal to T. The result is
a sequence of samples that retain the shape of the analog signal.

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PCM: Sampling

3. Flat top sampling: In comparison to natural sampling flat top

sampling can be easily obtained. In this sampling technique, the
top of the samples remains constant by using a circuit. This is the
most common sampling method used.

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Nyquist Theorem

One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency.

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at
least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal. It is
also known as the minimum sampling rate and given by:

Fs =2*fh

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PCM: Quantization

The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values

between the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal.
The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-integral values
between two limits.

The following are the steps in Quantization:

1. We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and

Vmin

2. We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax-

Vmin)/ L
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3. The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows
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PCM: Quantization

4. The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is

calculated
using the formula amplitude/d.

5. After this we calculate the quantized value which the

process selects from the middle of each zone.

6. The Quantized error is given by the difference between

quantised value and normalised PAM value.

7. The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization

levels at the left of the graph.
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Quantization

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Delta Modulation

Since PCM is a very complex technique, other techniques have

been developed to reduce the complexity of PCM. The simplest
is delta Modulation. Delta Modulation finds the change from
the previous value.

Modulator – The modulator is used at the sender site to create a

stream of bits from an analog signal. The process records a small
positive change called delta. If the delta is positive, the process
records a 1 else the process records a 0. The modulator builds a
second signal that resembles a staircase. The input signal is then
compared with this gradually made staircase signal.

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Delta Modulation

1. If the input analog signal is higher than the last value of the
staircase
signal, increase delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is
1.
2. If the input analog signal is lower than the last value of the
staircase signal, decrease delta by 1, and the bit in the
digital data is 0.

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Delta modulation components

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 Digital data to Analog
signals

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Digital Data to Analog Signal
Encoding
• To send the digital data over an analog media, it needs to be
converted into
analog signal. There can be two cases according to data
formatting.

• Bandpass: The filters are used to filter and pass frequencies of

interest. A bandpass is a band of frequencies which can pass
the filter.

• Low-pass: Low-pass is a filter that passes low frequencies

signals.

• When digital data is converted into a bandpass analog signal, it is

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Amplitude Shift Keying

• Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is

analog and data to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of
analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.

• The binary signal when

modulated gives a zero
value when the binary data
represents 0 while gives
the carrier output when
data is 1. The frequency
and phase of the carrier
signal remain constant.
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Advantages of Amplitude Shift
Keying
• It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

• The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also

makes it comparatively inexpensive.

• It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high

bandwidth efficiency.

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Disadvantages of Amplitude Shift Keying

• It is subject to noise interference and entire transmissions could

be lost due
to this.

• It has lower power efficiency.

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Frequency Shift Keying

• In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog

carrier signal is
modified to reflect binary data.

• This technique uses two

frequencies, f1 and f2. One
of them, for example f1, is
chosen to represent binary
digit 1 and the other one is
used to represent binary
digit 0. Both amplitude and
phase of the carrier wave are
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Advantages of Frequency Shift Keying

• Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise
problems
beset by ASK.

• It has lower chances of an error.

• It provides high signal to noise ratio.

• The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low

data rate
application.

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Disadvantages of Frequency Shift Keying

• It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less

bandwidth
efficiency.

• It has lower power efficiency.

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Phase Shift Keying

• In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is

modified to reflect binary data. The amplitude and
frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):

• BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest

form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is
changed according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift
keying, difference of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1
and binary 0.

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Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):

• This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation

technique and is
used for long distance wireless communication.

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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

• This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e we can code
two bits onto
one single element.

• It uses four phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK uses
phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees.

• It has double data rate

carrying capacity compare
to BPSK as two bits are
mapped on each
constellation points.
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Advantages of Phase Shift Keying

• It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared

to ASK and
FSK.

• It has lower chances of an error.

• It allows data to be carried along a communication signal

much more efficiently as compared to FSK.

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Disadvantages of Phase Shift Keying

• It offers low bandwidth efficiency.

• The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very

complex.

• It is a non coherent reference signal.

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 Digital data to Digital signals

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Digital data to Digital signal Encoding

Digital-to-digital encoding is the

representation of digital information
by a digital signal. When binary 1s
and 0s generated by the computer
are translated into a sequence of
voltage pulses that can be
propagated over a wire, this process
is known as digital-to-digital Dr. S.
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Unipolar

• Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the

medium link
such as wire or cable.

• In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0,

and another voltage level represents 1.

• The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or

negative.

• This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses

only one polarity.
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• In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary
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Unipolar

• In this, 1s are represented

as a positive value and 0s
are represented as a zero
value.

• In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is

considered as a high
voltage and '0' is
considered as a zero
voltage.

• Unipolar encoding is
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simpler and inexpensive
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Polar

Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage

levels: one is
positive, and another is negative.

By using two voltage

levels, an average
voltage level is
reduced, and the DC
component problem
of unipolar encoding
scheme is
alleviated.
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NRZ (Non-return zero) Encoding

• NRZ-L: In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the

type of the bit that it represents. If a bit is 0 or 1, then their
voltages will be positive and negative respectively. Therefore, we
can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of
the bit.

• NRZ-I: NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1

bit. In the NRZ-I encoding scheme, a transition occurs between
the positive and negative voltage that represents 1 bit. In this
scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a
change in voltage level.

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NRZ (Non-return zero) Encoding

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RZ (Return to zero) Encoding

• There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve

synchronization. However, to change with every bit, we need to
have three values: positive, negative and zero.

• RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values,

positive voltage represents 1, the negative voltage
represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.

• In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal

returns to zero.

• In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero

and 0 bit is represented [Link]-to-zero.
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RZ (Return to zero) Encoding

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Biphase

Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the

middle of the
bit interval but does not return to zero.

Manchester
• It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does
not return to zero for synchronization.
• In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition
represents binary
1, and positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
• Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ
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two levels of amplitude.
Differential Manchester

• It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for

synchronization, but the presence or absence of the transition
at the beginning of the interval determines the bit. A
transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.

• In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes

represent 0 and one signal change represent 1.

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Differential Manchester

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Bipolar

• Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels:

positive,
negative, and zero.

• In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and

binary 1 is represented by alternating positive and negative
voltages.

• If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the

second 1 bit is represented by negative voltage, third 1 bit is
represented by the positive amplitude and so on. This alternation
can also occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.
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Summary

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Summary
At the end of this session we have learned
about
• Data Encoding Techniques
• Analog data to Analog signals
• Analog data to Digital signals
• Digital data to Analog signals
• Digital data to Digital signals

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