PowerPoint® Lecture

Presentations prepared by
Mindy Miller-Kittrell,
North Carolina
State University

CHAPTER 3
Cell Structure
and Function

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 Processes of Life

• Growth
• Reproduction
• Responsiveness
• Metabolism

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 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview

• Prokaryotes
• Composed of bacteria and archaea
• Lack nucleus

• Lack various internal structures bound with phospholipid

membranes
• Are typically 1.0 µm in diameter or smaller
• Have a simple structure

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 Figure 3.2 Typical prokaryotic cell.

Inclusions

Ribosome

Cytoplasm
Nucleoid Flagellum
Glycocalyx
Cell wall
Cytoplasmic membrane
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 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview

• Eukaryotes
• Have nucleus
• Have internal membrane-bound organelles
• Are larger: 10–100 µm in diameter
• Have more complex structure

• Composed of algae, protozoa, fungi, animals, and

plants

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 Figure 3.3 Typical eukaryotic cell.

Nuclear envelope

Nuclear pore

Nucleolus
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Centriole
Secretory vesicle

Golgi body
Cilium
Transport vesicles

Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic

reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Cytoplasmic
membrane
Cytoskeleton
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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Glycocalyces

• Gelatinous, sticky substance surrounding the outside of

the cell
• Composed of polysaccharides, polypeptides, or both

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Two Types of Glycocalyces

• Capsule
• Composed of organized repeating units of organic chemicals
• Firmly attached to cell surface
• May prevent bacteria from being recognized by host
• Slime layer
• Loosely attached to cell surface
• Water soluble
• Sticky layer allows prokaryotes to attach to surfaces

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 Figure 3.5 Glycocalyces.

Glycocalyx Glycocalyx
(capsule) (slime layer)

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Flagella
• Are responsible for movement
• Have long structures that extend beyond cell surface
• Are not present on all bacteria

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Flagella
• Structure
• Composed of filament, hook, and basal body
• Basal body anchors the filament and hook to cell wall

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 Flagella: Structure

PLAY Flagella: Structure

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 External Structures of Bacterial Cells

• Flagella
• Function
• Rotation propels bacterium through environment
• Rotation reversible; can be counterclockwise or clockwise
• Bacteria move in response to stimuli (taxis)
• Runs
• Tumbles

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 External Structures of Prokaryotic Cells

• Pili
• Special type of fimbria
• Also known as conjugation pili
• Longer than fimbriae but shorter than flagella
• Bacteria typically only have one or two per cell
• Transfer DNA from one cell to another (conjugation)

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 Bacterial Cell Walls

• Provide structure and shape and protect cell from osmotic

forces

• Assist some cells in attaching to other cells or in resisting

antimicrobial drugs
• Can target cell wall of bacteria with antibiotics
• Give bacterial cells characteristic shapes
• Composed of peptidoglycan
• Scientists describe two basic types of bacterial cell walls
• Gram-positive and Gram-negative

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 Figure 3.13 Possible structure of peptidoglycan.

Sugar
backbone

Tetrapeptide
(amino acid)
crossbridge

Connecting chain
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 Bacterial Cell Walls

• Gram-Positive Bacterial Cell Walls

• Relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan
• Contain unique polyalcohols called teichoic acids
• Appear purple following Gram staining procedure

• Up to 60% mycolic acid in acid-fast bacteria helps cells

survive desiccation

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 Figure 3.14a Comparison of cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Peptidoglycan layer
(cell wall)

Cytoplasmic
membrane

Gram-positive cell wall Lipoteichoic acid

Teichoic acid

Integral
protein

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 Prokaryotic Cell Walls

• Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls

• Have only a thin layer of peptidoglycan

• Bilayer membrane outside the peptidoglycan contains

phospholipids, proteins, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

• Lipid A portion of LPS can cause fever, inflammation,

shock, and blood clotting

• Appear pink following Gram staining procedure

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 Figure 3.14b Comparison of cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Porin

Outer Porin
membrane (sectioned)
of cell wall

Peptidoglycan
layer of cell wall Periplasmic space

Cytoplasmic
Gram-negative cell wall membrane

Phospholipid layers
Lipopolysaccharide
(LPS) layer, containing Integral
lipid A proteins

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 Prokaryotic Cell Walls

• Bacteria Without Cell Walls

• A few bacteria lack cell walls

• Often mistaken for viruses due to small size and lack of

cell wall

• Have other features of prokaryotic cells such as

ribosomes

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 Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Structure
• Referred to as phospholipid bilayer
• Composed of lipids and associated proteins
• Integral proteins
• Peripheral proteins

• Fluid mosaic model describes current understanding of

membrane structure

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 Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Function
• Energy storage
• Harvest light energy in photosynthetic bacteria
• Naturally impermeable to most substances
• Proteins allow substances to cross membrane
• Maintain concentration and electrical gradient

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion

PLAY Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion

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 Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Function
• Passive processes
• Diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis

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 Figure 3.17 Passive processes of movement across a cytoplasmic membrane.

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 Figure 3.19 Effects of isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions on cells.

Cells without a wall

(e.g., mycoplasmas, H2O H2O
animal cells) H2O

Cell wall Cell wall

Cells with a wall H2O H2O H2O

(e.g., plants, fungal
and bacterial cells)

Cell membrane Cell membrane

Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic

solution solution solution

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 Passive Transport: Special Types of Diffusion

PLAY Passive Transport: Special Types of Diffusion

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 Prokaryotic Cytoplasmic Membranes

• Function
• Active processes
• Active transport
• Group translocation
• Substance is chemically modified during transport

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 Cytoplasm of Bacteria

• Cytosol
• Liquid portion of cytoplasm
• Mostly water
• Contains cell's DNA in region called the nucleoid

• Inclusions
• May include reserve deposits of chemicals

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 Cytoplasm of Bacteria

• Endospores
• Unique structures produced by some bacteria

• Vegetative cells transform into endospores when

multiple nutrients are limited

• Resistant to extreme conditions such as heat, radiation,

chemicals

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 Figure 3.23 The formation of an endospore.

Cytoplasmic
Cell wall membrane
Steps in Endospore Formation

1 DNA is replicated. 5 A cortex of peptidoglycan

is deposited between the Cortex
DNA membranes; meanwhile,
dipicolinic acid and
calcium ions accumulate
within the center of the
Vegetative cell
endospore.

Spore coat
2 DNA aligns along 6 Spore coat forms
the cell’s long axis. around endospore.

Outer
3 Cytoplasmic membrane Forespore 7 Endospore matures: spore coat
invaginates to form completion of spore coat
forespore. and increase in resistance
to heat and chemicals by
unknown process. Endospore

4 Cytoplasmic membrane First 8 Endospore is released from

grows and engulfs membrane original cell.
forespore within a
second membrane.
Vegetative cell’s DNA
disintegrates. Second
membrane

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 Cytoplasm of Prokaryotes

• Nonmembranous Organelles
• Ribosomes
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Composed of polypeptides and ribosomal RNA
• Cytoskeleton
• Composed of three or four types of protein fibers
• Can play different roles in the cell
• Cell division
• Cell shape
• Segregate DNA molecules
• Move through the environment
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 Archaeal Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic
Membranes
• Most archaea have cell walls
• Do not have peptidoglycan

• Contain variety of specialized polysaccharides and

proteins

• All archaea have cytoplasmic membranes

• Maintain electrical and chemical gradients
• Control import and export of substances from the cell

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 Figure 3.26 Representative shapes of archaea.

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic
Membranes
• Fungi, algae, plants, and some protozoa have cell walls
• Composed of various polysaccharides
• Cellulose found in plant cell walls

• Fungal cell walls composed of cellulose, chitin, and/or

glucomannan
• Algal cell walls composed of a variety of polysaccharides

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 Figure 3.27 A eukaryotic cell wall.
Cell wall Cytoplasmic membrane

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 Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic
Membranes
• All eukaryotic cells have cytoplasmic membrane
• Are a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins
• Contain steroid lipids to help maintain fluidity

• Contain regions of lipids and proteins called

membrane rafts
• Control movement into and out of cell

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 Figure 3.28 Eukaryotic cytoplasmic membrane.

Cytoplasmic
membrane

Intercellular
matrix

Cytoplasmic
membrane

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Flagella
• Structure and arrangement
• Differ structurally and functionally from prokaryotic flagella
• Within the cytoplasmic membrane
• Shaft composed of tubulin arranged to form microtubules
• Filaments anchored to cell by basal body; no hook
• May be single or multiple; generally found at one pole of cell
• Function
• Do not rotate but undulate rhythmically

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 Figure 3.30a-b Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Flagellum

Cilia

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Cilia
• Shorter and more numerous than flagella

• Coordinated beating propels cells through their

environment

• Also used to move substances past the surface of the

cell

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 Figure 3.31 Movement of eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Nucleus
• Often largest organelle in cell
• Contains most of the cell's DNA
• Semiliquid portion called nucleoplasm
• Contains chromatin
• RNA synthesized in nucleoli present in nucleoplasm
• Surrounded by nuclear envelope
• Contains nuclear pores

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 Figure 3.34 Eukaryotic nucleus.

Nucleolus
Nucleoplasm

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope

Two phospholipid
bilayers
Nuclear pores

Rough ER

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum

• Netlike arrangement of flattened, hollow tubules

continuous with nuclear envelope
• Functions as transport system
• Two forms
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

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 Figure 3.35 Endoplasmic reticulum.

Membrane-bound
ribosomes
Mitochondrion

Free ribosome

Rough endoplasmic
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. reticulum (SER)
 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Golgi body

• Receives, processes, and packages large molecules for

export from cell

• Packages molecules in secretory vesicles that fuse with

cytoplasmic membrane

• Composed of flattened hollow sacs surrounded by

phospholipid bilayer
• Not in all eukaryotic cells

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Lysosomes, peroxisomes, vacuoles, and vesicles
• Store and transfer chemicals within cells
• May store nutrients in cell
• Lysosomes contain catabolic enzymes

• Peroxisomes contain enzymes that degrade poisonous

wastes

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 Figure 3.37 Vacuole.

Cell wall

Nucleus

Central vacuole

Cytoplasm

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Mitochondria
• Have two membranes composed of phospholipid bilayer
• Produce most of cell's ATP

• Interior matrix contains 70S ribosomes and circular

molecule of DNA

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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Membranous Organelles
• Chloroplasts

• Light-harvesting structures found in photosynthetic

eukaryotes
• Use light energy to produce ATP
• Have two phospholipid bilayer membranes and DNA
• Have 70S ribosomes

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 Figure 3.40 Chloroplast.

Granum

Stroma

Thylakoid Thylakoid
space
Inner bilayer
membrane
Outer bilayer
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 Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

• Endosymbiotic Theory
• Eukaryotes formed from union of small aerobic prokaryotes with
larger anaerobic prokaryotes
• Smaller prokaryotes became internal parasites
• Parasites lost ability to exist independently

• Larger cell became dependent on parasites for aerobic ATP

production
• Aerobic prokaryotes evolved into mitochondria
• Similar scenario for origin of chloroplasts
• Theory is not universally accepted

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.