Chapter Two

Simple resistive (series, parallel)

circuits,
Series DC Circuits

Voltage Sources in Series

Voltage sources can be connected in series, to increase or decrease the total voltage
applied to a system. The net voltage is determined by summing the sources with the same
polarity and subtracting the total of the sources with the opposite polarity. The net polarity is
the polarity of the larger sum.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Laws
The law to be described here is one of the most important in this field. It has
application not only to dc circuits but also to any type of signal, whether it be ac, digital, and
so on. This law is far-reaching and can be very helpful in working out solutions to networks
that sometimes leave us lost for a direction of investigation.
The law specifies that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a
closed path (or closed loop) is zero.
Note:
1. By selecting a direction, you eliminate the need to think about which way
would be more appropriate. Any direction will work as long as you get
back to the starting point.
2. For a particular voltage, we will assign a positive sign when proceeding
from the negative to positive potential a positive experience such as
moving from a negative checking balance to a positive one. The opposite
change in potential level results in a negative sign.
Writing out the sequence with the voltages and the signs results in the following:

The result is particularly interesting because it tells us that the applied voltage of a
series dc circuit will equal the sum of the voltage drops of the circuit.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law can also be written in the following form:

the sum of the voltage rises around a closed path will always equal the sum of the voltage
drops.
Voltage Division in a Series Circuit
How will a resistor’s value affect the voltage across the resistor? It turns out that the
voltage across series resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the resistance levels.
In other words, in a series resistive circuit, the larger the resistance, the more of the
applied voltage it will capture.
In addition, the ratio of the voltages across series resistors will be the same as the ratio of
their resistance levels.
The voltage divider rule (VDR)
permits the determination of the voltage across a series resistor without first having to
determine the current of the circuit. The rule itself can be derived by analysing the simple
series circuit.

The voltage across a resistor in a series

circuit is equal to the value of that
resistor times the total applied voltage
divided by the total resistance of the
series configuration
The voltage divider rule can be extended to the voltage across two or more series elements if
the resistance in the numerator VDR equation is expanded to include the total resistance of
the series resistors across which the voltage is to be found (R’). That is,

Determine the voltage (denoted V) across the series combination of resistors R1 and R2 in
Fig.
Since the voltage desired is across both R1 and R2,
the sum of R1 and R2 will be substituted as R in Eq. The
result is:
Parallel DC Circuits
1. Parallel Resistors
The term parallel is used so often to describe a physical arrangement between two
elements that most individuals are aware of its general characteristics.
In general, two elements, branches, or circuits are in parallel, if they have two points
in common.
For resistors in parallel, the total resistance is determined from the following
equation:

Since G = 1/R, the equation can also be written in terms of conductance levels as follows:
In general, however, when the total resistance is desired, the following format is applied

If you review the examples above, you will find that the total resistance is less than
the smallest parallel resistor.
“the total resistance of parallel resistors is always less than the value of the smallest
resistor”
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors
The total resistance of two parallel resistors is simply the product of their values divided by
their sum.

A parallel circuit can now be established by connecting a supply across a set of

parallel resistors.
“the voltage is always the same across parallel elements”.
 The relationship between the source current and the parallel resistor currents can be
derived by simply taking the equation for the total resistance

For single-source parallel networks, the source current (Is) is always equal to the sum of the
individual branch currents.
The duality that exists between series and parallel circuits:
for a parallel circuit, the source current equals the sum of the branch currents, while for
a series circuit, the applied voltage equals the sum of the voltage drops .

Power distribution in parallel circuit

“for any network composed of resistive elements, the power applied by the battery will
equal that dissipated by the resistive elements”
which is exactly the same as obtained for the series
combination.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
The sum of the currents entering a junction (or region) of a network must equal the
sum of the currents leaving the same junction (or region)

Current Divider Rule:

For two parallel elements of equal value, the current
will divide equally. For parallel elements with different values,
the smaller the resistance, the greater the share of input current.
For parallel elements of different values, the current
will split with a ratio equal to the inverse of their resistor
values.
 The current IT can then be determined using
Ohm’s law:

Since the voltage V is the same across parallel

elements, the following is true:

where the product IxRx refers to any combination in the series. Substituting for V in the above
equation for IT, we have

Solving for Ix , the final result is the current divider rule:

which states that the current through any branch of a parallel resistive network is equal to
the total resistance of the parallel network divided by the resistor of interest and multiplied
by the total current entering the parallel configuration.
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors
For the case of two parallel resistors as shown in Fig, the total resistance is determined by

for two parallel resistors, the current through one is equal to the
other resistor times the total entering current divided by the sum
of the two resistors
Voltage Sources in Parallel
Because the voltage is the same across parallel elements, voltage sources can be
placed in parallel only if they have the same voltage. The primary reason for placing two or
more batteries or supplies in parallel is to increase the current rating above that of a single
supply.
Two ideal batteries of 12V have been placed in parallel. The total source current
using Kirchhoff’s current law is now the sum of the rated currents of each supply. The
resulting power available will be twice that of a single supply if the rated supply current of
each is the same. That is,
 Methods of Analysis (dc)
There are different methods applicable to analysis of electric circuits that include branch-
current analysis, mesh analysis, and nodal analysis. Each can be applied to the same network,
although usually one is more appropriate than the other. The “best” method cannot be defined by a
strict set of rules but can be determined only after developing an understanding of the relative
advantages of each
Current Sources
The current source is often described as the dual of the voltage source. Just as a battery
provides a fixed voltage to a network, a current source establishes a fixed current in the branch
where it is located. Further, the current through a battery is a function of the network to which it is
applied, just as the voltage across a current source is a function of the connected network.
- a current source determines the direction and magnitude of
the current in the branch where it is located.

- the magnitude and the polarity of the voltage across a current

source are each a function of the network to which the voltage
is applied.
Example -1
Find the source voltage, the voltage V1, and current I1 for the circuit shown:

Solution:
Since the current source establishes the current in the branch in which it is located,
the current I1 must equal I,
The voltage across R1 is then determined by Ohm’s law:

Since resistor R1 and the current source are in parallel, the voltage across each must be the
same, and
Vs = V1 = 200 V with the polarity shown.
Sources Conversions
The current source is said to be an ideal source due to the absence of any internal
resistance. In reality, all sources- whether they are voltage sources or current sources- have
some internal resistance in the relative positions. For the voltage source, if Rs = 0 , or if it
is so small compared to any series resistors that it can be ignored, then we have an “ideal”
voltage source for all practical purposes. For the current source, since the resistor RP is in
parallel, if RP = ∞ , or if it is large enough compared to any parallel resistive elements that
it can be ignored, then we have an “ideal” current source.

Source conversion.
Practical sources: (a) voltage; (b) current
Current sources of different values cannot be placed in series due to a violation of
Kirchhoff’s current law.

In general, two or more current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single

current source having a magnitude determined by the difference of the sum of the currents
in one direction and the sum in the opposite direction. The new parallel internal resistance is
the total resistance of the resulting parallel resistive elements.