Fundamentals of Soil Science

SOL-103
 Introduction
The word soil has been derived from the Latin word solum,
meaning floor or ground.

For a soil scientist – Soil,

For a geologist – A fragmented rock,
For an engineer – Earth,
For an economist – Land
 Origin of soil
 First stage: Parent materials (series of
soil formation )
 Nera to Parent material: Sedentary (Eg:
Black soil of India on basaltic parent
rock and parent material in peninsular
region.
Transporting agency
 Water: alluvial, marine, Lacustrine
 Glacial: ice
 Aeolian: wind
 Colluvial: gravity
When a thick mantle of soil is formed over the rock surface, the
weathering process is slowed down, but the dynamic reaction continues.
Soil is thus in effect of dynamic system.
 Definition of Soil
Generally, soil refers to the lost surface of the earth as identified from the original
rocks and minerals from which it is derived through weathering processes.
• Whitney (1892): Soil is a nutrient bin that supplies all the nutrients required for plant
growth
• Hilgard (1892): Soil is more or less a loose and crumby part of the outer earth crust
in which plants, by means of their roots, may or do find a foothold for nourishment as
well as for other conditions of growth”
• Dokuchaiev (1900): Russian scientist - Father of soil science - Soil is a natural body
composed of mineral and organic constituents, having a definite genesis and a
distinct nature of its own.
• Buckman and Brady (1969 ): Soil is a dynamic natural body on the surface of the
earth in which plants grow, composed of mineral and organic materials and living
forms
 1. Solid phase
Arrangement of solid particles and pore space is called soil matrix. Ratio
2:1:1
The solid phase is 50% of the total of the earth’s crust having 5% organic
matter and 45 % mineral matter.
• Organic matter: Only a small fraction of the solid phase is of organic
origin. The sources of organic origin are plants, animals, and organisms
(macro and micro) in nature.
• Inorganic matter: The inorganic constituents form the bulk of the solid
phase. It contains both primary and secondary minerals.
i. Primary minerals: Found in rocks and original sources are soil.
ii. Secondary minerals: Formed by disintegration and degradation of
primary minerals under weathering.
Major components of soil
 1. Mineral Matter (45%)

It is composed of finely broken rock fragments and minerals. It is either

dominated by inorganic constituents or distinct minerals like quartz and
feldspar. It is variable in size some are coarse, and some are very fine.
Primary minerals: persisted from original rock (e.g. quartz, feldspar (58%),
pyroxenes, etc.) it is coarser fraction >2mm
Secondary minerals: formed from alteration or decomposition of primary
mineral. Particles <2 microns (0.002mm) (e.g. clay minerals such as kaolinite,
biotite, muscovite, vermiculite, etc.)
Mineral matter provides mechanical support and nutrients to the plants.
Mineral is defines as naturally occurring inorganic, homogenous substance possessing
definite composition, crystalline structure and characteristic physical properties.
 2. Organic Matter (5%)
OM exists as partly decayed and partially synthesized plant and animal residues.
Dead materials: it remain dead at all stages of decomposed (humas 58% Carbon compound) Living
material: soil microbes( bacteria, earthworm, actinomycin, nematode, fungus)
Tow type of Organic soil
• Muck soil: 20-50% well decomposed OM
• Peat soil: >50% Om present in soil, it is suitable for paddy cultivation.
• Soil must contain Minimum 20% of OM.
• It is the major source of N. 5-60% phosphorus and 80% of sulfur including different trace elements
like boron and molybdenum.
It acts as a chelate. Chelate is any organic compound that can bind to metal by more than one bound
and form a ring or cyclic structure.
It contributes to CEC in soil
 Organic matter is a storehouse of plant nutrients
OM in Indian soil ranges 1-2%
CEC value of OS is 50-100meq/100g
Soil OM CN ratio 10:1
 4. Water (25%)
• Ground water table, rainfall, and irrigation are soil water sources.
• Water movement and retention are influenced by texture, structure,
nature of organic and inorganic collides, type and amount of CEC, and
size and total amount of pore space.
• It is held within the soil pores with varying degrees of force depending
upon the surrounding water present.
• Soil water consists of various salts in solutions such as sulphate,
nitrate, carbonate, and bicarbonate of Ca, Mg, K, Na, etc.
• Soil water keeps nutrients in solution and acts as a reservoir for
supplying water to the plants.
 3. Air (25%)
• Air space or pore space (voids)
• Soil air comprises O2 , CO2, N2 etc.
• Co2 content in soil (0.25%) is higher than in atmospheric air (0.033%)
(microbial and plant respiration effect)
• O2 in soil 20.6% , In Atm 20.95%
• N2 in soil 79.2%, In Atm 78.08%
• The composition of soil air is quite dynamic and varies from place to place.
• Soil air contains higher moisture than atmospheric air.
• Soil air regulates gaseous exchange between soil air and atmospheric air
which ensures a fresh supply of oxygen and thereby prevents Co 2 toxicity.
 Concepts of "Pedon" and “Polypedon"
Pedon: A pedon is the smallest natural three-dimensional unit of soil that can be
studied as an individual entity. It is like a representative soil sample, that includes
all horizons (layers) and features specific soil types in a given location. The pedon
is used as a basic unit for soil classification and description.

Polypedon: A polypedon, is a group of similar pedons that share similar soil

properties and occur repeatedly in the landscape due to similar geological, and
climatic conditions.
Soil profile
 Master horizons and sub-horizons
O horizon – It is called an organic horizon. It is formed in the upper part of
the mineral soil, dominated by fresh or partly decomposed organic
materials.

 This horizon contains more than 20% organic matter

 Commonly seen in forest areas and generally absent in grassland, and
cultivated soils.
 O1 – Original forms of the plant and animal residues can be recognized
through the naked eye.
 O2 – Original plant or animal matter can not be recognized through the
naked eye.
A horizon (Elluvial) –Washing or leaching horizon and it is near to
the surface.

A1 – The topmost mineral horizon rich in OM.

A2 –Horizon of washing out or eluviation of clay, iron, and aluminum

oxides and organic matter.

A3 - A transitional layer between A and B horizons with more

dominated properties of A1 or A2 above than the underlying B
horizon. Sometimes it may be absent.
B (Illuvial) horizon – It is a washing-in horizon or accumulation of materials such as
clay, iron, aluminum, or humus alone or in combination from above.
from below in arid conditions such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, and other
salts during evaporation.

 B1 – A transitional layer between A and B. More like B than A. Sometimes absent

 B2 - Zone of maximum accumulation of clay, iron, and aluminum oxide that may
have moved down from upper horizons or may have formed in situ.
 B3 - Transitional horizon between B and C with properties more similar to that of
overlying B2 than underlying C.
 C horizon - It is the horizon below the solum (A + B), relatively less
affected by soil-forming processes. It is outside the zone of major
biological activity. It may contain an accumulation of carbonates or
sulphates, calcium, and magnesium.

•  R - Underlying consolidated bedrock and it may or may not be like

the parent rock from which the solum is formed.
Soil Taxonomy