MODULE2

Variable Inductance Transducers

Work based on three principles:
(i) Change of self-inductance

(ii) Change of mutual inductance

(iii) Production of eddy currents

 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
Construction and Working Principle
(LVDT)
•The LVDT is the most widely used inductive transducer for converting linear motion into an electrical
signal.
•The LVDT consists of:
• One primary winding (P)
• Two secondary windings (S₁ and S₂)
placed symmetrically on either side
• A movable soft iron core placed
inside a cylindrical former
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Construction and Working Principle
•The primary winding is excited by an AC source,
producing an alternating magnetic field.
•This alternating field induces emf in both secondary
windings due to mutual inductance.
•The core is made of high-permeability nickel-iron,
which is slotted to reduce eddy current losses.
•The frequency of the AC excitation may range from
50 Hz to 20 kHz.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Output Voltage Principle
•The two secondary windings S₁ and S₂ are connected in series opposition.
•The differential output voltage is given by:
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Behaviour at Different Core Positions
1. Null Position (Central Core Position):
1. Equal magnetic flux links both secondary windings.
2. Therefore,
→.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Behaviour at Different Core Positions
2. Core Displaced to the Left:
1. More flux links with S₁ and less with S₂.
2. Hence,
→ ​is positive, and in phase with primary voltage.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Behaviour at Different Core Positions
3. Core Displaced to the Right:
1. More flux links with S₂ and less with S₁.
2. Hence, ​
→ ​is negative, and 180° out of phase with primary voltage.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Output Characteristics
The phase of the output voltage indicates direction of
displacement:
◦ 0° phase angle when core moves left

◦ 180° phase angle when core moves right

Any physical movement of the core causes unequal

emf in secondaries, and this difference measures
displacement.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Output Characteristics
•The output voltage is linearly proportional to displacement within a certain range.
•This linear range typically extends to about ± 5 mm from the null position.
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
Practical Considerations
•Ideal condition:
◦ Output voltage at null position

•In practice:
• A small residual voltage exists at null position due to:
• Harmonics in input AC
• Iron core-induced harmonics
• Magnetic/electrical imbalance
• Stray magnetic fields or temperature effects

•This residual voltage is usually less than 1% of the max linear range output.
 Advantages of LVDT
1. High Range
LVDTs offer a wide measurement range from 1.25 mm to 250 mm with excellent resolution up to 0.003
mm. They have a 0.25% full-scale linearity, though dynamic response is slower than a 2.5 kHz excitation
signal.

2. Frictionless Operation & Electrical Isolation

The movable core does not touch the coil, resulting in frictionless and wear-free operation, giving infinite
mechanical life.
This is ideal for critical applications like fatigue testing, aircrafts, missiles, and space systems.
 Advantages of LVDT
3. Immunity from External Effects
LVDTs are immune to pressure, corrosive fluids, and harsh environments due to isolation between the coil
and core, with a non-magnetic barrier.

4. High Output & Sensitivity

LVDTs provide high output voltage (typically 40 V/min) and often require no amplification.

5. Ruggedness
LVDTs tolerate shock and vibration and are small, light, and easy to align.
 Advantages of LVDT
6. Low Hysteresis
LVDTs have excellent repeatability due to low hysteresis.

7. Low Power Consumption

Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W, making them energy-efficient.
 Disadvantages of LVDT
1. Requires Large Displacement
A noticeable movement is needed to produce appreciable output.
2. Sensitive to Magnetic Fields
They are affected by stray fields, but this can be reduced by shielding.
3. Affected by Vibrations
Performance may deteriorate under vibration.
4. AC compatible instrument or Demodulation
Receiving instrument must be AC-compatible or requires a demodulator for DC output.
5. Dynamic Response Limitation
Dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by the frequency of
applied voltage.
6. Temperature Sensitivity
Temperature affects the performance of the transducer
Use of manganin wire helps, but reduces sensitivity compared to copper.
Uses of LVDT
1. Primary Transducer for Displacement
It directly converts mechanical displacement into proportional voltage, with one-stage
conversion.

2. Secondary Transducer for Force/Pressure/Weight

LVDT can be used with a load cell or Bourdon tube to convert force/pressure into voltage
due to its high sensitivity.
Piezo-Electric Transducer
Definition
A piezo-electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a
crystal when its dimensions are changed by a mechanical force.
This potential is due to displacement of charges.
The effect is reversible: if a varying potential is applied to the crystal, its dimensions change
(mechanical deformation).
Piezo-Electric Effect
Forward effect: Mechanical force → Electric potential.
Reverse effect: Applied voltage → Mechanical deformation.
Materials showing this property are called piezo-electric elements (not electro-resistive elements).
Common Piezo-Electric Materials
•Natural materials:
•Quartz
•Rochelle salt
•Synthetic materials (grown from aqueous solutions under controlled conditions):
•Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate
•Lithium sulphate
•Dipotassium tartrate
•Potassium dihydrogen phosphate
•Ethylene diamine tartrate
•Ceramics (polycrystalline, made of barium titanate):
•Ceramics A & B
•Originally non-piezoelectric → special polarizing treatment gives piezoelectric properties.
Working Principle
A piezoelectric element can be treated as:
◦ Charge generator + Capacitor.

Mechanical deformation → Generates charge → Appears as voltage across electrodes.

Voltage expression:

where,
◦ = Voltage,
◦ = Generated charge,
◦ = Capacitance.
Desirable Properties of Piezo-Electric
Materials

Stability
High output
Insensitivity to:
◦ Temperature variations
◦ Humidity variations

Ability to be formed into usable components

Examples:
Quartz → Most stable, but low output.
Rochelle salt → Very high output, but moisture-sensitive; cannot be used above 45°C.
Applications
Frequency Stabilization (Oscillators)
◦ Quartz is widely used due to its stability.
◦ Ground to a specific shape → connected in oscillator circuits.
◦ Controls and stabilizes frequency of electronic oscillators.

Piezo-Electric Transducers (Dynamic Measurements)

◦ Suitable only for dynamic strain/stress (not static conditions).
◦ Voltage generated under static strain is not held.
◦ Applications:
◦ Measurement of surface roughness
◦ Accelerometers
◦ Vibration pickups

Ultrasonic Applications
◦ Barium titanate is commonly used.
◦ Applications:
◦ Ultrasonic generators for industrial cleaning apparatus
◦ Underwater detection systems (Sonar)
Hall Effect Transducers –
Class Notes
Principle
When a conducting strip carries a current (I) in the presence of a transverse magnetic field (B),
a potential difference (Hall voltage) appears across its opposite edges.
This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect.
The Hall voltage depends on:
◦ Current through the strip (I)
◦ Magnetic field strength (B)
◦ Thickness of the strip (t)
◦ Material property known as Hall Coefficient (KH)
Expression for Hall Voltage

where,
= Hall voltage (V)
= Hall effect coefficient ()
= Current through strip (A)
= Magnetic flux density (Wb/m² or Tesla)
= Thickness of the strip (m)
Working
Current is passed through input leads (1 & 2) of the strip.
A transverse magnetic field is applied.
Due to Hall effect, a voltage appears across the output leads.
The voltage is directly proportional to both current (I) and magnetic flux density (B).
Applications of Hall Effect
Transducer
1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer
A semiconductor plate is placed in the magnetic field to be measured.
Magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the plate.
Output voltage ∝ Magnetic flux density (B).
Advantages:
◦ Requires very little space along the magnetic field direction.
◦ Can be inserted in narrow gaps for magnetic measurements.
◦ Provides a continuous electrical signal proportional to magnetic field strength.

Disadvantages:
High sensitivity to temperature variations.
Hall coefficient varies from plate to plate → requires individual calibration.
Applications of Hall Effect
Transducer
2. Measurement of Displacement (Position/Proximity Sensing)
Hall element placed in the gap of a magnetic structure containing a permanent magnet.
A ferromagnetic plate is moved, changing the field strength in the gap.
Output voltage ∝ Field strength in the gap ∝ Position of the ferromagnetic plate.
Used as displacement or proximity transducer.
Accuracy: Displacement measurements possible down to 0.025 mm.
Applications of Hall Effect
Transducer
3. Measurement of Current
Hall transducer can measure current without interrupting the circuit and
without direct electrical connection.
Working principle:
◦ Current (AC or DC) in a conductor → produces surrounding magnetic field.
◦ Hall element placed in a slotted ferromagnetic tube (magnetic concentrator).
◦ Output voltage ∝ Magnetic field strength ∝ Current in conductor.

Current measurement range: Less than 1 mA to several thousand

amperes.
For high currents, concentrator may be omitted as the field is strong
enough.
Application is similar to a clamp-on ammeter.
Semiconductor Photoelectric
Transducers
Principle
When optical radiation (light, X-rays, corpuscular radiation) falls on a semiconductor
transducer, it is absorbed.
Absorption produces movable charges or changes in mobility of carriers, leading to:
◦ Change in resistance (ΔR)
◦ Change in current output (ΔI)
◦ Change in voltage output (ΔV)

The effect depends on the type of transducer used.

Photoconductive Cells
(Photoresistors / LDRs)
Working
In semiconductors, conduction occurs when free carriers (electrons/holes) are available.
Light energy incident on certain semiconductors releases charge carriers → increases conductivity.
With constant applied voltage:
◦ Light intensity ↑ → Current ↑ → Resistance ↓

Hence, these are called photoconductive cells / LDRs.

Materials Used
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) → Band gap = 2.42 eV
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) → Band gap = 1.74 eV
Both have very high resistivity in dark → high dark resistance.
Characteristics
Dark Resistance (Rf): Resistance when cell is in darkness. Can be as high as .
On illumination → resistance decreases.
Resistance depends on:
◦ Material properties
◦ Physical dimensions & geometry

Current output: in the range of mA (depends on applied DC voltage).

Sensitive area: relatively large → small change in light intensity causes large resistance change.
Typical resistance change: 1000 : 1 when irradiance changes from to .
Characteristics
Irradiance–Resistance relation (exponential):

where,
◦ = Dark resistance (Ω)
◦ = Final resistance after beam application (Ω)
◦ = Time
◦ = Time constant
Limitations
Resistance also changes with temperature variations → poor stability.
Not suitable for precision analog applications.