Chapter 2:
Community water supply
10/03/2025 By Genet [Link] 1
Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
Define water
Describe the hydrologic cycle of water
List the importance of water
Identify the current challenges in accessing safe
drinking water supply
Differentiate the major sources of water
List the main diseases associated with water
List the major sources of water contaminants
Describe water treatment options/methods
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Brain storming questions
What is water for you?
How can be water formed ?
What percentage of water used for human
beings for different purpose on earth ?
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Introduction
Water is :a colorless, transparent, odorless and
tasteless liquid that forms the seas, lakes, rivers,
and rain and is the basis of the fluids of living
organisms
Body composition
Body 65-70% water;
Earth :72% is covered by water
Basic requirements for safe water
Drinking: 2–3 liters/day; minimum
acceptable standard for living (WHO)
20–50Ls/cap/day for all domestic use
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Con’t
Definitions of terms related to water
Safe/potable/ water
It is water that does not contain harmful chemical
substances, or microorganisms in concentration that
could cause illness in any form. (WHO)
Palatable
Water which is pleasant to drink but may be
contaminated
Adequate water
Sufficient for drinking, domestic & other
household purposes.
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Definitions of terms……
Raw water – naturally untreated water from
suspicious sources such as rivers and lakes.
Hard water – is the water that contains
excessive amount of dissolved minerals usually
salts of magnesium and calcium.
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Hydrologic cycle
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Con’t
What is the importance of water for:
Human physiology ?
Other purpose ?
Major benefits of water in human body
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Con’t
Domestic use
Agricultural ( irrigation) Benefits of water
Manufacturing purpose other than human
Fish & wild life maintenance body
Power generation
Construction
Recreational
Transportation
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Sources of water
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Sources of water
1. Ground water (wells and springs)
2. Surface water (rivers, streams and lakes)
3. Rain water.
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Conti-
Ground water
Groundwater may be defined as that portion of the total
precipitation which has percolated downward into the
porous space in the soil and rock where it remains, or from
which it finds its way out to the surface
e.g. Wells, Springs
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Con’t
Wells
Wells are the main source of water supply.
They are artificial holes or pits dug into the
earth to reach to the underground water level.
There are different types of wells:-
Hand Dug well and Drill well
shallow wells and deep wells.
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Springs
Springs are natural outlets of ground water under pressure
by the impermeable layer.
They come out at places where the geological conditions
are favorable.
Their yield of water is usually too small to cater the need
of the community for water.
Springs are simpler to exploit, as no pumping is needed
to bring the water to the surface.
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Springs(continued).
Proper location and well built protective structures are
therefore necessary to safeguard ground water quality.
The only issue is careful attention must be paid to
geological formations that may lead to the
contamination of ground water.
Springs are also exposed to contaminations from
flood water.
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Conti-
Surface water
e.g. Rivers, Streams, Lakes, Ponds
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Discussion
Discuss the difference between surface and ground water
1. Advantage and disadvantage of surface water
2. Advantage and disadvantage of ground water
3. Which water source have you used in your campus ?
and what is the challenge and possible solution for it ?
4. Which sources of water is used by the community in
your locality and what is the challenge and possible
solution
Advantage and disadvantage of Each water
source
Ground water Surface water
Cool and microbial safe Surface water is liable for
Reliable year rounds contamination
High investment costs for
Cheaper
treatment of raw water
Proximity to users
(available on-site)
No need of additional raw
water storage facilities
Excessive dissolved
minerals
Pumping cost
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Diseases associated with water
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Current status of water supply
Globally in 2015, 844 million people still lack a basic
drinking water of which 58% lived in sub-Saharan
Africa.
In Ethiopia 2016 Ethiopian demographic and health
survey (EDHS) report showed that only 65 % had
access to an improved source of drinking water
respectively.
Question
How is the current status of water supply in
your campus interms of quality, quantity and
convenience?
Water Associated Diseases
80% of all diseases & 1/3 of the deaths in developing
countries are associated with unsafe water
Diseases associated with water can be broadly
classified in to 5 epidemiological groups:-
1. Water borne disease
2. Water washed disease
3. Water related disease
4. Water based /impounding disease
5. Excess/shortage of chemical constituents
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Conti-
Water borne disease
Diseases caused by ingestion of water contaminated
by human or animal excrement, which contain
pathogenic microorganisms
e.g. Cholera, typhoid fever, bacillary dysentery,
infectious hepatitis, amoebiasis, & other diarrheal
diseases
In addition, water-borne disease can be caused
by the pollution of water with chemicals that
have an adverse effect on health
Nitrates from fertilizers, Carcinogenic
pesticides (DDT), Lead (from pipes), & other
Heavy Metals
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Conti-
Water washed disease
Due to lack of adequate supply of water &
poor sanitation (personal hygiene)
e.g. Trachoma, scabies, typhus, & other
flea, lice & tick-borne disease
Conti-
Water related disease
Water serve as development & breeding site of
insects. e.g. Filariasis, malaria, onchocerciasis,
trypanosomiasis & yellow fever
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Conti-
Water based /impounding disease
Caused by infectious agent come in contact
with contaminated water
Diseases caused by parasites found in
intermediate organisms living in contaminated
water
e.g. Schistosomiasis, dracunculasis
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Con’t
Conti-
Excess or shortage of chemical constituents
E.g. Fluoride
Excess dental fluorosis (mottled teeth)
Shortage dental caries (tooth decaying)
Nitrate –excess nitrate has been linked to
methaemoglobinemia in infants ;the so called “blue
baby syndrome.”
Nitrate leads to oxidation of normal hemoglobin to
methaemoglobin which is unable to transport oxygen
to the tissues .This may result in cyanosis and in some
cases cause death.
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Group Discussion
1. Discuss on the difference between the five
types of water associated disease and give
example for each.
2. List the prevention strategies for each disease.
3. Which types of water associated disease is
common in your locality and why?
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Water associated diseases and preventive strategies
Water diseases Diseases (Example) Prevention strategy
Water-borne Diarrhoea, - improve water quality
Cholera, Typhoid - prevent casual use of unimproved sources
Hepatitis
Water-scarce Trachoma, Typhus, - improve water quantity
(water-washed) relapsing fever - improve water accessibility
- improve hygiene
Water-based Bilharzia - decrease need for water contact
(Schistosomiasis) - control snail populations
Guinea worm - improve water quality
Water-related Malaria, - improve surface water management
insect vector River blindness, - destroy breeding sites of insects
Sleeping sickness - decrease need to visit breeding sites
- improve design of storage vessels
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Water quality control
Characteristics of drinking water
Safe or bad, that related to acceptability for
drinking .“WHO”
Water should be:-
1. Free from pathogenic microorganisms
2. No chemicals that have an adverse effect on human
health
3. Fairly clear: low turbidity
4. Not saline
5. No chemicals that cause an offensive taste /smell
6. Not causing corrosion on water supply system, nor
staining clothes washed in it
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Impurities of water
Water is not absolutely pure in nature, It
gathers impurities as it goes through its natural
cycle
1. Suspended impurities
2. Dissolved impurities
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Conti-
Suspended impurities
Are very fine Particles of insoluble matter.
a. Microorganisms
From air, soil- Waterborne diseases
b. Suspended solids
– Minute particles of soil, clay, silt, dead leaves & other
insoluble materials get into water by erosion &
drainage
c. Algae
Minute plants that grow in stagnant water
Suspended solids generally cause taste, color or turbidity
(muddiness/ cloudiness of water).
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Conti-
Dissolved impurities
1. Gases Co2, H2S, etc.
Co2 cause acidity
H2 S imparts bad odor & acidity
2. Minerals During percolation & dumping
Ca & Mg cause hardness
Na & K cause alkalinity
Pb, As, Cr toxicants
3. Plant dyes
Originate from plants which grow in water
Acidity & color
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Some relevant water quality parameters
Temperature
Turbidity
Odors & tastes Physical Parameters
Color
pH
Alkalinity & acidity
Chlorides Chemical parameter
Nitrogen compounds (organic N,
ammonia N, nitrite N, )
Hardness
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Conti-
Fluorides
Iron & manganese
Sulfates
Residual Chlorine Chemical parameter
Total dissolved solids
Dissolved oxygen
Biochemical oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Coli forms Bacteriological parameter
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Con’t
Types of water quality examination
1. Physical examination: to determine aesthetic quality.
2. Chemical examination: To test for chemicals which
affect the water quality and/or which are indicative of
pollution.
3. Bacteriological examination: To test for the presence
of bacterial indicators of pollution & hence safety for
consumption.
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Planning a community/school water supply
Generally, in planning a community water supply
the following parameters should be considered to
Prevent diseases associated with water-
1. Quality
Safe & wholesome (M/Os & chemicals)
2. Quantity
Adequate & continuous
3. Convenience
Accessible & Affordable
4. Water management
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Discussion
What are the possible sources of water
contamination/pollution in general and in your
locality in particular and your suggestion on
possible solution ?
Major sources of water contamination
Surface run off (flood) entering into surface water and
ground water.
Pollutants falling into rivers ,unprotected wells and
springs.
Infiltration from nearby latrines, cesspools, septic tanks,
etc.
Water can also be chemically contaminated if it
contains excessive amounts of toxic chemicals.
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(continued)
These can happen in at least two ways:
I. Toxic chemicals or elements may occur naturally in
water due to the underlying geological formation.
Examples are :-
Arsenic compounds.
Lead.
Fluorides.
II. Water gets contaminated through discharge or
infiltration of organic compounds and pesticides used in
agricultural enterprises.
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The effect on health is normally specific to certain
chemicals or elements.
E.g. Fluorosis is a chronic condition caused by excessive
intake of fluorine compounds, marked by mottling of the
teeth and, if severe, calcification of the ligaments.
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Summary Source of Water Contamination.
Point source:- pollutants enter a water way from a specific point
through a pipe, ditch, culvert etc.
Comes directly from a known source .Easy to identify, monitor, and
regulate. Examples:Waste products from manufacturing process,
sewage system, power plants, municipal treatment plants,.
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Con’t
II. Nonpoint source:- Pollutions that comes from
many diffuse sources rather than any
identifiable specific point.
Soil erosion
Construction activities
Animal feedlot runoff
Pesticides and fertilizers run off
Urban street runoff
Con’t
Prevention
Prevent flooding .
Cover at all times.
Consult professionals for proper site
selection before construction.
Keep the bucket and rope clean at all times.
Similar problems can arise when springs
are used as water source and thus necessary
protective actions should be taken to
safeguard the water supply.
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Prevention of contamination of a well
Sitting of the well –higher level than source of
contaminants
- not be less than 15 m from sources of contaminants
protection of the well
cover
Sanitary rope and bucket
Fencing
Diversion ditch
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Prevention of contamination of spring
1. Sitting
Sanitary survey –is a complete extremely careful
and detail investigation of water supply
systems in order to detect potential sources of
contaminants in the water.
2. Construction of protection box
3. Construction of collection box
4. Diversion ditch and fencing
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Protection of streams
Avoiding or drastically reducing or dumping of
human and animal wastes.
Zoning –sectioning into different parts uppermost
section for drinking,Lower section for washing and
domestic animals
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Water treatment
Process of removing all those
substances whether
biological, chemical or
physical which are potentially
dangerous or undesirable in
water supplies for human &
domestic use.
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Conti-
Objectives of water treatment
1. To remove pathogenic organisms & consequently
to prevent water-borne diseases
2. To remove substances which impart color, taste or
odor to the water
3. To remove excess/undesirable chemicals/minerals
4. To regulate essential chemicals which may be in
excess or lacking in a certain water-supply system
E.g. fluoridation or defluoridation of water
5. To remove excess/undesirable dissolved gases
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Conti-
Treatment of water can be conducted
At small scale level (home made)
Large scale level (municipal water treatment)
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Treatment of water on small scale
A. Boiling
B. Use of direct sunlight radiation
C. Home made sand filters
D. Candle filter
E. Chemical disinfectants:-Chlorine and Iodine
F. House hold water storage
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Conti-
A. Boiling
Boiling for 15-20 minutes
All forms of micro-organisms, including the most
resistant spores or cysts, will be destroyed.
But it can not destroy toxic chemicals.
B. Use of direct sunlight radiation (SODIS)
A 5-6 Hrs sunlight radiation of 1L water
contained in plastic/glass bottle.
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Solar Disinfection (SODIS)
Sunlight kills M/Os & could be
used for water disinfection
Plastic bottles are often available as a
waste product & could be used for a
new water treatment method
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Conti-
C. Home made sand filters
Can be set up in individual homes, in containers
such as steel barrels, drums, etc.
Properly constructed home made sand filter can
remove most of the substances that cause
turbidity, taste, and odor, the cyst and ova of
parasites, & other relatively larger organisms.
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Conti-
D. Candle filter
Commercially made for filtering individual water
supplies
Efficiency of filtration depends on the pore size of
the candle
Pore size varies from 0.3µm-50 µm
Viruses & small sized bacteria may not be removed
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Conti-
(Adapted from Gabre-Emanual Teka. Water Supply-
Ethiopia: An Introduction to Environmental Health
Practice, 1997.)
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Conti-
E. Chemical disinfectants
i. Chlorination
Stock solution (1% chlorine)
3 drops of 1% chlorine / liters of water
Minimum contact time is 30 minutes.
Tablets (Halazone, aquqtab etc.)
1 tablet (4mg)/ L clear water
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Conti-
ii. Iodine
2 drops of 2% iodine /liter
1 tablet per liter
It is a better disinfectant than chlorine.
However, is relatively expensive for ordinary
use, and in addition imparts to the water the
familiar medicinal iodine smell.
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Conti-
F. House hold water storage
Water is stored for 72 hours or more
Many organisms such as cercaria & coliform
bacteria can be reduced in number
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Moringa
Water purification methods using
seeds from the Moringa tree help
significantly reduce the incidence
of waterborne disease in the
developing world, but their use
has been limited geographically.
The Moringa’s usefulness doesn’t
end with the provision of cleaner
water. It can even bring other
health benefits.
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Municipal (Conventional Large Scale) water
treatment
1. Preliminary water treatment
2. Aeration and Pre-chlorination
3. Coagulation and flocculation
4. Sedimentation
5. Filtration (Rapid and Slow)
6. Disinfection (Post-chlorination)
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1. Preliminary water treatment
Screening
Screening is the first step in treating water
containing large solids.
It does not change the chemical & bacteriological
quality of water.
It block and remove large particles e.g. plastic
bags, rags, paper,…
Purpose
– Remove of floating & suspended matter
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2. Aeration and Pre-chlorination
Aeration: addition of air, to remove substances which
cause odor/taste E.g. Dissolved iron, manganese, H2S
Pre-chlorination: It is the addition of chlorine
compounds to water before it is filtered.
It is the first step in the treatment of raw water.
Use
Reduce growth of algae
Improve coagulation
Reduce taste and odor
But, it is not applicable in Ethiopia, because it
is uneconomical.
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3. Coagulation & flocculation
Coagulation: is a chemical process in which charged
particles (colloids) are destabilized.
Flocculation: is stimulation by mechanical means to
agglomerate destabilized particles into compact, fast
setleable particles (or flocs).
Coagulants -Aluminum sulfate (alum), ferrous sulfate,
Ferric chloride, and some plant seed (e.g. Moringa olifera)
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4. Sedimentation
Water is made quiescent for a
given period to remove turbidity,
substances which cause color ,
taste, odor, bacteria.
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5. Filtration
Removal of colloidal (usually destabilized) and
suspended material from water by passage through
layers of porous media.
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6. Disinfection
Use of dis infectants like cholérine, idoine,
potassium permanganate, etc to prevent
microorganisms.
Chlorine is the disinfectant of choice because:
It is relatively easy to handle and transport and they
are readily available almost everywhere
comparatively inexpensive
effective and long lasting
simple to apply and relatively easy to detect in water,
both qualitatively and quantitatively
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Conti-
Flow of municipal water treatment
method
Raw water course screen fine screen
Pumping station Aeration/ pre-
chlorination
Coagulation sedimentation Filtration
Chlorination Distribution
system/reservoir
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Discussion
[Link] type of water treatment option
is implemented in your locality and
why?
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Summary
Steps of conventional water
treatment
Raw
Raw water
water
Screening Filtration
Filtration
Screening
sludge
sludge sludge
sludge
Alum
Alum
Polymers
Polymers Cl
Cl22
Coagulation
Coagulation Disinfection
Disinfection
Flocculation
Flocculation Storage
Storage
Sedimentation
Sedimentation Distribution
Distribution
sludge
sludge
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Questions????
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