Chapter-2

POWER CONVERTERS IN EVS

V. Mounica
Professor of Practice
MBU University
+91 9398439263 • ✉
v.mounica2018@[Link]
SYLLABUS/OUTLINES:

 Introduction
 Significance of Electric Vehicles
 Significance of Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS).
 Hybridization of Energy Storage System for EV's and HEV’s.
 Power Converters In EV’s
-Introduction, isolated DC-DC converter — advantages, forward converter, CCM currents in forward
converter, CCM voltages in forward converter and sizing the transformer. Isolated full-bridge converter,
operation, CCM currents in full-bridge converter and CCM voltages in the full-bridge converter.

Resonant power conversion — LCLC series-parallel resonant converter, desirable converter characteristics
for inductive charging and fly-back converter. Bi-directional battery chargers and contactless charging.

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INTRODUCTION:

 Hybrid power system suitable for powering electric cars, trains and aircraft especially under high fluctuated load

demand.

 A Hybrid Electric Vehicle is a type of vehicle that uses a combination of an Internal Combustion (IC) engine and an

electric propulsion system.

 The hybrid system includes fuel cells (FC), batteries and supercapacitors (SCs).

 The energy management strategy (EMS) is a key factor to reduce the total hydrogen consumption and slow down

the FC performance degradation.

 The electric powertrain may enhance fuel efficiency, increase performance, or independently propel the vehicle

on pure electric power, depending on the type of hybrid system.

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EV...

Figure 1. Configuration of energy management in a Electric vehicle [EV].

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 Hybridization of Energy Storage Device for EV's and HEV's
High Power Demand
High Specific Power
Load
Energy Source Converter
• Hybridization of different energy storage
High Specific
devices like batteries, UC and Fuel cells can
Power Source
Low Power Demand be used in HEVs to get good efficiency.

High Specific Power • Hybridization energy storage is to combine

Load
Energy Source Converter two or more energy storages together so that
High Specific advantages of each one can be bought out
Power Source and disadvantages can be compensated by
Negative Power Demand another source.

High Specific Power

Load
Energy Source Converter
High Specific
Power Source Primary power flow
Secondary Power flow

03/10/2025 Figure 2 Hybridization of ESS 5

The energy exchanges from the FC to ESS operates in three modes [17]:
• Charge mode - The FC supplies energy to the ESS and the load
• Discharge mode - The FC and storage devices supply energy to the
load
• Recovery mode - The energy is supplied by recovering power
through regenerative braking and stored in the ESS. (BP and/or UC).

Figure. 2 Energy management strategy: Red arrow suggests power

flow during low-load condition, green arrow suggests power flow
during high-load condition, and blue arrow suggests power flow
during transient condition
Figure 3 Different Topologies for HESS [2]
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 By using reliable PMS, the proper PMS controls the power response of HESS with load demand.

 Majorly the PMS relies on obtaining the reference power of fuel cells.

 The reliable power managing scheme (PMS) is situated essentially to assure the resulting

• Lower consumption of hydrogen ( (gm) of FC.

• DC bus voltage regulation should be desired value.

• Tracking the Battery and SC set-point values

• Validate the global constancy of the system structure.

• The system operates at a high level of efficiency.

• The long-life cycle of a hybrid energy storage system (HESS).

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 Configuration, the UC simply act as a filter, which can significantly level the peak current of the battery and
reduce the voltage drop.
 The power flow cannot be actively controlled, and UC energy cannot be fully used.

Figure 3 Hybridization of sources

Figure 5 Voltage and current profile of ESS Figure 4 Hybridization of sources with power converter
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 Figure 5 Classification of DC-DC Converters
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Non-Isolated Converters:-Boost Converter

• A conventional step-up or pulse-width

modulation (PWM) boost converter is
depicted in Figure.6.

• which consists of a DC input voltage source

Vs., energy storage element (i.e., inductor
and capacitor), controlled switch
(MOSFET, IGBT, etc.) Q, diode D, filter
capacitor C, and load (electric motor).

• In a boost DC–DC converter, the output

voltage is always more significant than the
input voltage, hence the name “Boost”
Figure 6 Classification of DC-DC Converters

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Non-Isolated Converters: Buck Converter

 Consists of a switch network that reduces the dc

component of voltage, and a low-pass filter that removes
the high-frequency switching harmonics.

• Vg- unregulated DC voltage input to a DC-DC

converter.
• V- regulated output voltage, having a magnitude less
than Vg.

. Figure 7 The buck converter.

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Switch Network:
1. A single-pole double-throw (SPDT) switch is connected to
the dc input voltage Vg.
2. The switch output voltage vs(t) is equal to Vg when the
switch is in position 1 and is equal to zero when the switch is
in position 2.
3. The switch position varies periodically, such that vs(t) is a
rectangular waveform having period Ts and duty cycle D.
4. The duty cycle is equal to the fraction of time that the switch
Figure 7 The buck converter. is connected in position 1, and hence 0 ≤D ≤ 1.
5. The switching frequency fs is equal to 1/Ts.
6. In practice, the SPDT switch is realized using semiconductor
devices such as diodes, power MOSFETs, IGBTs, BJTs, or
thyristors.
7. Typical switching frequencies lie in the range 1 kHz to 1
MHz, depending on the speed of the semiconductor devices.

Figure 8 switch voltage waveform.

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Low-Pass Filter:

1. In addition to the desired dc voltage component Vs, the

switch waveform vs(t) also contains undesired harmonics of
the switching frequency.
2. In most applications, these harmonics must be removed, such
that the converter output voltage v(t) is essentially equal to
the dc component V = Vs.
Figure 7 The buck converter. 3. A low-pass filter is employed for this purpose.
4. The converter of Fig. 1 contains a single-section L-C low-
pass filter.
5. To the extent that the inductor and capacitor are ideal, the
filter removes the switching harmonics without dissipation of
power.

Figure 8 switch voltage waveform.

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Duty cycle/Output:

 The conversion ratio M(D) is defined as the ratio of the dc

output voltage V to the dc input voltage Vg under steady-state
conditions:

Figure 7 The buck converter.

 For the buck converter, M(D) is given by

Figure 8 switch voltage waveform.

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Duty cycle/Output/pulse-width modulator:

Figure 9 Realization of the ideal SPDT switch using a transistor and freewheeling diode. In
addition, a feedback loop is added for regulation of the output voltage.

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Classification/Summary:

Figure 10 Several basic dc-dc converters and their dc

conversion ratios

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Isolated Converters:-

Classification of isolated DC-DC converter topologies..

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Isolated Converters:-

Isolated Converters:
• Power converters that transfer electrical energy between two isolated circuits using a transformer,
while also converting the DC voltage level.
• The key feature of these converters is galvanic isolation between the input and output

Benefits:
• Safety: Between high voltage and low voltage
• Noise Reduction
• Ground Loop prevention
• Voltage level shifting
• Multiple Outputs

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Isolated Converters:-Applications

Applications:
• Medical devices (patient isolation)
• Industrial controls
• Electric vehicles (battery systems)
• Telecommunication equipment
• Aerospace and defense
• Solar power systems

Types of Isolated Converters:

• Flyback
• Forward
• Push – Pull
• Half – Bridge
• Full – Bridge

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Isolated Converters:- galvanic isolation

Galvanic isolation is a principle of isolating functional sections of

electrical systems to prevent current flow; no direct conduction path
is permitted.

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Isolated Converters:-Applications

(a) single-stage SISO, (b) single-stage SIMO, and (c) cascaded two-stage SIMO.
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Full – Bridge Isolated DCDC Converter:

Vdc : Input DC Voltage Source

Q 1, Q 2 , Q 3, Q 4 : Full Bridge Inverter MOSFETs or IGBTs
D1, D2 : Bridge Diodes
L–C: LC filter
VO : Output Controlled Voltage
R: Load Resistance
1:n : Transformation Ratio/Turns ratio
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Working:
1. DC Input: A DC voltage (Vdc) is applied to the input of the full bridge inverter.

2. Inverter Operation: The full bridge inverter uses four switches (usually MOSFETs) to alternate the direction
of current, creating an AC signal at a high frequency (typically kHz).

3. Transformer: This high-frequency AC signal is then sent through a transformer, where the voltage can be
stepped up or down (based on 1:n, transformation ratio). The transformer also provides electrical isolation.

4. Rectification: On the output side of the transformer, the AC voltage is rectified using diodes or active
rectifiers, turning it back into DC.

5. Output Filter: The rectified DC is filtered to smooth out the ripple and ensure a stable output using LC Filter.

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Advantages:
1. Electrical Isolation
2. Efficiency
3. Voltage Regulation
4. Power Density

Applications:
5. Power Supply: Telecom, Industrial & Medical Instrument
6. DC-DC Converters: Solar applications, HEV

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Flyback Converter:

• The biggest advantage of the flyback converter is that it can be extended from a single-stage SISO
system to a single-stage SIMO system by simply introducing a secondary winding with a rectification
stage

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Flyback Converter:

Flyback converter (Isolated buck-boost converter) Non isolated Buck Boost converter.

 VIN: The input voltage, which is the source of electrical power for the circuit.
 CIN and COUT: The input and output capacitors, respectively. The capacitors are used to store and release electrical
charge to the regulator VIN and the output voltage (VOUT).
 Control: A signal that comes from the IC controller that switches on the primary MOSFET. This process allows
current to flow through LP, and this current is transferred to the output.
 LP and LS: The primary and secondary inductors, respectively. The coupled inductors store and release energy, as well
as determine VOUT based on the number of individual turns in their winding.
 D: The diode, which rectifies VOUT by converting the alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) so that
current can only flow in one direction.
 RL: The load that emulates the power consumption of the flyback converter.
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Flyback Converter-Operating Principle:

 At tON, the MOSET is in the on state, current

flows from the input and through LP to
charge the coupled inductor.
 At tOFF, the MOSFET is in the off state. The
coupled inductor demagnetizes through
the diode, and this current then charges
COUT and powers the load.

• Also known as isolated buck-boost converters.

• For flyback converters, the inductor is split to form a coupled inductor, also called flyback transformer.
• This coupled inductor isolates the converter’s input from its output.
• The flyback transformer turns ratio,
NP:NS
-NP is the number of turns for the primary winding.
-NS for the secondary winding.
• Duty cycle (D) is the ratio of the on time compared to the total switching period (t ON / τSW).

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Flyback Converter-CCM & DCM:
Current and Voltage Waveforms Current and Voltage Waveforms
for CCM for DCM

 In CCM, the MOSFET switches from tOFF to  In DCM, the energy is completely discharged,
tON before the inductor completely meaning there is a time during which IL is zero.
discharges, which prevents the inductor  When IL is zero, both the diode and MOSFET are
current (IL) from reaching zero. in an off state.
 where the current across the secondary  DCM is the opposite, where the current drops to zero every
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winding of the transformer never reaches switching cycle for a certain amount of time.
Flyback Converter-CCM & DCM:

Feature CCM DCM

Magnetizing Current Never reaches zero Falls to zero every cycle
Power Level Medium to high Low to medium
Transformer Size Larger Smaller
Control Complexity Higher Simpler
Efficiency (High Load) Higher Lower
Output Voltage Ripple Lower Higher
EMI Lower Higher
Switching Losses Lower Higher

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Forward Converter:

• The forward converter resolves the limited duty cycle constraint of the flyback converter by including a
third tertiary winding and a diode in the topology.

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Forward Converter:

Flyback converter (Isolated buck converter) Non isolated Buck converter.

 It uses transformer to increase or decrease the output voltage and provide galvanic
isolation for the load.
 Basically, when a transformer is inserted at the middle of a buck converter, a
forward converter is produced.
 The transformer isolates the source side from the load side and mostly has a unity turns
ratio.
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Forward Converter-Operating Principle:
Mode 02 (Q1 is turned
Mode 01 (Q1 is OFF)
turned ON)

 The current flows through the transformer

primary, and the induced voltage is produced  In this step, the switch Q1 and diode D1 are off, and the
on the secondary side. energy stored in the inductor L1 is discharged to the load.
 Diode D1 will be in forwarding bias.
 Energy is stored in the inductor (inductor
charging), and the required current for load is
supplied.
 Diode D2 is turned off, and there is no current
in the parallel diode.
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Forward Converter-Operating Principle:

Adding tertiary winding to the forward

 This circuit has a significant issue owing to
converter.
inductive current disruption.

 If Q1=ON to OFF, the inductive current in the

transformer primary would be cut out, which
imposes stress on the switch because the
inductive current cannot jump to zero.

 As a matter of fact, the current has no path to

go in the transformer primary.

 Adding tertiary winding to the forward converter

: Stored energy in the transformer primary is fed back to the
source by tertiary winding.

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

 Efficient energy transfer

 Voltage regulation

 Minimizing losses.

The transformer in a forward converter typically performs two functions:

 Voltage Step-up or Step-down: Depending on the design, the transformer either steps up or steps down the

input voltage to the required output voltage

 Energy Storage and Transfer: The transformer also stores energy during the ON period of the switch and

transfers it to the output during the OFF period, typically through a diode.

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

Key Parameters:
i. Input Voltage -The DC voltage applied to the primary side of the transformer.
ii. Output Voltage -The required DC voltage on the secondary side.
iii. Output Power -The desired output power of the converter.
iv. Switching Frequency -The frequency at which the switch operates.
v. Transformer Turns Ratio (n)- The ratio between the number of turns on the primary coil and the secondary coil of
the transformer.
 The turns ratio helps determine the output voltage relative to the input voltage.

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

1) Determine the Transformer Turns Ratio.

2) Calculate the Primary and Secondary Winding Currents.

3) Core Selection.

4) Determine the Magnetizing Inductance.

5) Determine the Number of Turns for Primary and Secondary Windings.

6) Verify the transformer design.

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

1) Determine the Transformer Turns Ratio:

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

2). Calculate the Primary and Secondary Winding Currents

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:
3) Core Selection

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

4) Determine the Magnetizing Inductance

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

5) Determine the Number of Turns for Primary and Secondary Windings

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

6) Verify the transformer design

Finally, once you have the number of turns for the primary and secondary windings, verify the following:
• Voltage Rating: Ensure that the windings can handle the voltage stresses without breaking down the
insulation.
• Current Rating: Ensure the windings can carry the calculated currents without excessive heating.
This involves checking the wire gauge and considering the copper losses.
• Leakage Inductance: Minimize leakage inductance, as it can affect the performance of the converter
and cause voltage spikes.

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Forward Converter-Sizing of Transformer:

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Classification of the DC-DC converters:

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Categories of the SSCs

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Hard and Soft Switching:

Current waveform and voltage waveform of hard-switching and soft-switching at both turn-on and
turn-off transitions.
In hard switching, In soft switching,
 Power switch transitions between ON and OFF states while  switches turn ON or OFF when either voltage or current
both voltage and current are present during the transition. is zero, reducing switching losses significantly.
 This leads to high switching losses and stress on the switch.  There are two main types:
 Common in basic converters like: [Link] Voltage Switching (ZVS):
• Buck  Switch turns ON when voltage across it is zero.
• Boost [Link] Current Switching (ZCS):
• Buck-Boost  Switch turns OFF when current through it is zero.

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Resonant power converters :

The structure of the RPC:

CSN: full and half bridge are the commonest switching networks.
RTN: Comprise of LC circuit (reactive elements) that stock oscillating energy with the frequency of circuit resonant.
 The main common three resonant circuits include
1. Series-parallel resonant converter (SPRC),
2. series resonant converter (SRC),
3. parallel resonant converter (PRC).
DR-LPF : This implies that the purpose of utilizing DR-LPF is to filter and correct the AC waveform to achieve the
entailed DC output waveform.
[Link] rectifier network with low pass filter (DR-LPF)
2. Diode rectifier with capacitive low pass filter (DR-CLPF)
3. Diode rectifier coupled with inductive low pass filter (DR-LLPF)
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BIDIRECTIONAL CHARGER MODELLING:

Vehicle to grid power flow diagram

 Charger

 Control Strategy

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BIDIRECTIONAL CHARGER MODELLING:

Electric diagram of bidirectional battery charger

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BIDIRECTIONAL CHARGER MODELLING:

EV bidirectional battery charger:

1. AC/DC converter
2. DC/DC converter as shown in Figure.

AC/DC converter:

During EV charging mode:

 AC/DC bidirectional converter rectifies the AC power to DC power.
During EV discharging mode:
 AC/DC bidirectional converter inverts the DC power of the EV battery to AC power and inject to power grid.

DC/DC converter:
 Rresponsible to control the bidirectional power flow by using direct current control technique.
 It acts as a buck or boost converter during charging or discharging mode.

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BIDIRECTIONAL CHARGER MODELLING:

Charger:

 A battery charger can be installed on-board or off-board of the vehicle.

 On-board chargers are usually smaller in size and is suitable for slow charging.
 Off-board charger has larger size and is installed at fixed location
EV battery charger is designed as a bidirectional V2G charger, which allows
 slow charging
 fast charging,
 slow discharging and fast discharging.

Control Strategy:

 The direction of power flow can be represented by the direction of the current.
Control strategy is applied to the DC/DC converter
 where it acts as a buck converter when IGBT1 is triggered
 where it acts as a boost converter when IGBT2 is triggered.

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BIDIRECTIONAL CHARGER MODELLING:

DC/DC converter’s controller can be categorized into two

control parts:
1. charging control
2. discharging control.
STEP-1: Initially, this controller compares the reference battery
current with the measured battery current to decide between
the charging or discharging mode.
STEP-2: For charging mode: the error between the measured
battery current and reference battery current is computed. This
error passes through the PI controller for tuning. The output of
the PI controller will be used to generate pulses by using
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) technique. The
pulses generated in this stage is used to trigger IGBT1.
Throughout the charging process, IGBT2 is turned OFF.
STEP-3: For discharging mode: controller computes the error
between the reference battery current and measured battery
current. Then, the PI controller will perform the tuning of the
calculated error. The output is sent to SPWM to generate the
necessary pulses for IGBT2. During the discharging mode,
IGBT2 is turned OFF.
Control block diagram of DC/DC converter
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Contactless charging:

Structure of a unidirectional wireless charger. Structure of a bidirectional wireless charger.

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Contactless charging:

Wireless power transfer technology can be realized by different techniques.

1) a pair of loosely coupled coils operating under resonant conditions.

2) This is known as Inductively Coupled Power Transfer or ICPT.
3) In this technique, one coil is placed in the pavement (named the primary side) and the other in the chassis (known as the
pickup or secondary side).
4) The current through the primary coil induces a voltage in the secondary coil, which is used to charge the battery.
5) The magnetic field involved in this charger is ranged in the 20 kHz - 100 kHz interval. To generate this high-frequency
sinusoidal current, power converters need to be included in the charger.
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.

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