BAEEE101- Basic Engineering

SLOT- B1+TB1 & B2+TB2

[Link],
AP- SENSE,
VIT-Chennai campus.
 Course Objectives

 To introduce fundamental principles of major engineering disciplines.

 To create awareness of interdisciplinary engineering systems and their applications

 Course Outcomes

 Analyse the electrical circuits, electrical motors and the role of power electronics in industrial
applications.

 Acquire foundational knowledge of electronic devices and communication systems.

 Syllabus

Module:1 Principles of Electrical Engineering: Circuits and Power conversion

equipment

Electric circuit components, Mesh current analysis, Node voltage analysis,

Thevenin's and Superposition theorems, Single phase AC circuits- RL, RC, RLC,
Power and Energy Calculations, Power Factor, Basics of Electrical Safety and
Earthing.
Introduction to electro mechanical energy conversion, principle of operation of
Electrical Machines - DC Motor, Induction motors, BLDC Motor and single phase
Transformer, Concepts of Power Electronics and Industrial Applications of
Electrical Drives (Qualitative Analysis)
 Syllabus

Module:2 Foundations of Electronics and Communication systems: Devices,

Circuits, and Systems

Characteristics of PN Junction Diode, Zener Diode, BJT and MOSFET. Rectifiers

and Voltage Regulators. Introduction to Operational Amplifiers. Electromagnetic
Specturm. Elements of Communication Systems. Overview of cellular
communication. Fundamentals of Satellite Communication and Radar.
 BOOKS
Text Book(s)
1. Allan R. Hambley, “Electrical Engineering -Principles & Applications”, 2019, 6th Edition,
Pearson Education
2. R.L. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and circuit theory”, 11th Edition, person
Publications
3. Louis E Frenzel Jr, “Principles of Electronics Communication Systems”, 2016, McGraw Hill
Eduation.
Reference Books
1. John bird, “Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology”, 4th edition, Newnes Publications,
Elsevier, 2010
2. George Kennedy,Brendan Davis, Srm Prasanna “Electronic Communication Systems”,
McGraw Hills, 2011
 Course Assessment

Sl No Assessment Type Maximum Marks Weightage Marks

Continuous
1 50 15
Assessment Test - I
Continuous
2 50 15
Assessment Test - II
3 Digital Assignment - I 10 10
4 Digital Assignment - II 10 10
5 Digital Assignment - III 10 10
6 Final Assessment Test 100 40
Electrical

 Electrical deals with the flow of electrical power or charge.

 When only electricity is used as a source of energy, this is referred to be electrical.

Electronics
 Electronics deals with the flow of electrons.
 Electronics is the field in which electrical energy is manipulated.

Electricity: The invisible energy which establish flow of electrons in a closed circuit to do
work is called electricity.
Basic Electrical Concepts
There are three primary electrical parameters:
 Voltage
 Current
 Resistance
Voltage (V)
voltage is defined as potential difference between two points of an electric field.
potential difference volts

Electrical Potential: The capacity of charged body to do work is called electrical potential.
potential coulomb

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 Current (I)
Current is the time rate of flow of electric charge in electric field, usually in electrical
circuit.

• Direction of a current is opposite to the direction of electron flow.

• Current is measured in AMPERES (Amps). which are equivalent to coulombs per second
(C/s).
Amperes - electric charges crossing per second.
The electrical current flowing through the circuit is given by,
i(t) = dq(t)/ dt
q(t)- the net charge in coulombs as a function of time in seconds

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Power
The product of the current and the voltage is the rate of energy transfer. In other words, the
product of current and voltage is power:
p=v*I watts.

Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in Joules (J). The electric power utility
companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where 1Wh= 3600 J.

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Resistance (R)

• Resistance is an electrical quantity that measures how the device or material reduces the
electric current flow through it.

• The resistance is measured in units of ohms (Ω).

• Resistance depends on materials.

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 Types of Resistors

• Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values

• Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values

• Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings

• Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

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Resistor colour coding

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 Example

• 4 band resistor

1st: 1st Digit

2nd : 2nd Digit
3rd : Multiplier
4th: Tolerance

Example:
1st : Yellow (4)
2nd: Violet (7)
3rd : Red ()
4th : Tolerance: Silver: 10%
Resistance:
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• 5 band resistor

• Example:
1st : Blue (6)
2nd: Green (5)
3rd : Red (2)
4th : Multiplier: Black (1 Ω)
• Tolerance: Gold: 5%
Resistance:

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 Module:1

DC Circuits

 Basic circuit elements and sources.

 Ohms law.
 Kirchhoff’s laws.
 Mesh current analysis.
 Node voltage analysis.
 Theorems: Thevenin's, Maximum power transfer and Superposition theorem.

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 Basic circuit elements and sources
Electric Circuit:
The interconnection of various electrical elements in a prescribed manner is called an electric circuit.

Basic circuit Elements:

• Resistor: A resistor is defined as a two-terminal passive electrical element that provides electrical resistance to current
flow.
• Capacitor: A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical element that possesses the ability to store energy in the form of an
electric charge.
• Inductor: An inductor is a two-terminal passive electrical element that stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when
electric current flows through it.

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The circuit elements can be categorized as:
1. Active and passive elements
2. Unilateral and bilateral elements
3. Linear and non-linear elements
Active and passive elements
Active elements are those who supply energy in the form of a voltage or current to the
circuit.
Examples batteries/generators, diode, transistor, etc.

Passive elements are those who receive energy in the form of voltage or current.
Examples resistor, capacitor and inductor.

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Unilateral and bilateral elements
Unilateral elements: The elements which conduct the current in one direction only are called
unilateral elements.
Examples diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes, rectifiers etc.
Bilateral elements: The elements which conduct the current in both the directions are called
bilateral elements.
Examples resistor, capacitor and inductor.

Linear and non-linear elements

Linear Elements: The elements which follow the linear relation between current and voltage.
e.g. resistors
Non-Linear Elements: The elements which don't follow the linear relation between current and
voltage. e.g. Diode and transistors.

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Voltage and Current Source
To deliver electrical energy to the electrical circuits, a source is required . The source may be voltage
source or current source.
• Voltage source: A Voltage Source is an active element that provides a specified and constant voltage which is
completely independent of any other circuit elements.
• Current source: A current source is a source that maintains the current at a particular value almost independent
of the load conditions.

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Sources can be either independent or dependent upon some other quantities.
Independent voltage/ current source:
Independent voltage/ current sources supply a constant voltage/current that does not depend on any other quantity
within the circuit.

Dependent voltage/ current source:

The strength of voltage or current is not fixed, it changes when the other parameters are changed in the circuit.

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Ideal Voltage source is a voltage source without any internal resistance(Zero). In this source, output voltage will be
constant for any value of load. Practically it is not possible to build a voltage source with no internal resistance and
constant voltage for that long range of the load.

Practical voltage source always have some resistance value in series with an ideal voltage source and because of
that series resistance, some voltage drops occurs when current passes through it.

Ideal current source has an infinite internal resistance. Therefore, the output current is independent of voltage of the
source terminals. Again it is not practically possible to make one.
Practical Current Source has some internal resistance connected in parallel to Ideal Current Source. And some of
the current flow through it and the amount of flow depends upon the load.

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 Network Terminology
Electric Network:
Electric network is an interconnection of electric components. E.g. Batteries, resistors, inductors, and capacitors.

Node:
Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected together. In Fig. A, B, C and E
are nodes.
Junction:
Junction is a point in the network where three or more circuit elements are connected together. It is a point where
current is divided. In Fig. B and E are junctions.
Loop:
The closed path of a network. E.g. ABEFA, BCDEB and ABCDEFA are loops.
Mesh:
The elementary form of loop which cannot be further divided is called mesh. E.g. ABEFA, BCDEB are mesh.
Branch:
Branches are the connections between nodes. A branch is an element (resistor, capacitor, source, etc.). The number
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of branches in a circuit is equal to the number of elements.
 OHM’S LAW
In 1827, George Simon Ohm discovered that there was a definite relationship between voltage,
current, and resistance.

Ohm’s law states that the current (I) flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, at the constant temperature.

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Practice problems

1. The current flowing through a resistor is 0.5 A when a potential difference is of 10 V is applied.
Determine the value of the resistance.
Ans: R= V/I = 20 ohms

2. A potential difference across 15 Ω is 8 V. What is the current through the resistor?

Hint: I= V/R

3. Suppose we have a typical incandescent electric light bulb that is rated for 100 W and 120 V.
Find its resistance (at operating temperature) and operating current.
Hint: P= Vx I, R= VxV/P,
I= V/R

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 Kirchhoff ’ s Laws
Kirchhoff's Laws describe current in a node and voltage around a loop. These two laws are the foundation of
advanced circuit analysis.
Kirchhoff ’ s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff ’ s Voltage Law (KVL)

KCL: States that algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of a circuit is zero. Another, and perhaps simpler, way
of stating this is to say that the sum of the currents arriving at a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
that junction.

Condition:
• Minimum one path must be an incoming path.
• Minimum one path must be an outgoing path.

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KVL: States that in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the
loop must be equal to zero.

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Bread board

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 series and parallel connection

• In a series connection, components are arranged in a single path, so the same current flows through each component.
• In a parallel connection provides multiple paths for current to flow, and the voltage across each component is the same.

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Series Circuits
When elements are connected end to end, we say that they are connected in series. In order for elements A
and B to be in series, no other path for current can be connected to the node joining A and B. Thus, all elements in a
series circuit have identical currents.
ia = ib
At node 2, we have
ib = ic
Thus, we have
ia = ib = ic

Example: Use KCL to determine the values of the unknown currents shown in Figure.

Ans: ia = 4A, ib = −2A, ic = −8A.

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 Parallel Circuits
Two circuit elements are connected in parallel if both ends of one element are connected directly (i.e., by
conductors) to corresponding ends of the other element. For example, in Figure, elements A and B are in parallel.
Similarly, we say that the three circuit elements D, E, and F are in parallel. Element B is not in parallel with D
because the top end of B is not directly connected to the top end of D. The voltages across parallel elements are equal
in magnitude and have the same polarity.

Use repeated application of KVL to find the values of vc and ve for the circuit of Figure

Ans: vc = 8V, ve = −2V.

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Series Circuits
When elements are connected end to end, we say that they are connected in series. In order for elements A and B to be
in series, no other path for current can be connected to the node joining A and B. Thus, all elements in a series circuit
have identical currents.
ia = ib
At node 2, we have
ib = ic
Thus, we have
ia = ib = ic

Example: Use KCL to determine the values of the unknown currents shown in Figure.

Ans: ia = 4A, ib = −2A, ic = −8A.

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 Parallel Circuits
Two circuit elements are connected in parallel if both ends of one element are connected directly (i.e., by
conductors) to corresponding ends of the other. For example, in Figure, elements A and B are in parallel. Similarly,
we say that the three circuit elements D, E, and F are in parallel. Element B is not in parallel with D because the top
end of B is not directly connected to the top end of D. The voltages across parallel elements are equal in magnitude
and have the same polarity.

Use repeated application of KVL to find the values of vc and ve for the circuit of Figure

Ans: vc = 8V, ve = −2V.

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 Series Resistors and Voltage Division
Defn: The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the individual
resistances.
The resistors are in series, since the same current i flows in them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we
obtain
V1= iR1, V2= iR2 ___ 1
If we apply KVL to the loop, we have
-V + V1 + V2 = 0 i.e V= V1+V2._____ 2
Substitute1 in 2
V= i(R1+R2)
V= iReq
Req = R1+R2.
I through R is same.
V through R is different.
Examples
Series connections are used in Water heater, Iron box etc.
Why?
 Voltage Division
Defn: Of the total voltage, the fraction that appears across a given resistance in a series circuit is
the ratio of the given resistance to the total series resistance. This is known as the voltage-
division principle.
The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source is
Req = R1 + R2 + R3
The current is the total voltage divided by the equivalent resistance:

The voltage across R1 is

Similarly voltage across R2 and R3 is

 Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Defn: The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their resistances divided
by their sum.
where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,
V = i1R1 = i2R2
i1= V/R1, i2= V/R2
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1+i2

where is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel

N number of resistors
Example
Parallel connections are used in house wiring

Why?
 Current Division
Defn: For two resistances in parallel, the fraction of the total current flowing in a resistance is the
ratio of the other resistance to the sum of the two resistances. Notice that this principle applies
only for two resistances. If we have more than two resistances in parallel, we should combine
resistances so we only have two before applying the current-division principle.
The total current flowing into a parallel combination of resistances divides, and a fraction of the total
current flows through each resistance. The equivalent resistance is given by

The voltage across the resistances is given by

Now, we can find the current in each resistance:

Exercise1: Use the voltage-division principle to find the voltages
labeled in Figure

Ans: v1 = 10 V, v2 = 20 V, v3 = 30 V, v4 = 60 V

Exercise2: Use the current-division principle to find the currents labeled in Figure

Ans: i1 = 1A, i3 = 2A
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Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the circuit
By combining the resistors in , find Req.
 Star- Delta transformation
In bridge circuits , the resistors are neither in series nor in parallel. This can be simplified by
using three-terminal equivalent networks. Two forms of the networks are
• Star network: Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent delta branches, divided by the sum of the three delta resistors.
• Delta network: Each resistor in the delta network is the sum of all possible products of Y
resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
 Methods of Analysis
• The fundamental laws are not applicable for this type of circuits.
• We cannot solve this circuit by combining resistances in series and parallel
because no series or parallel combination of resistances
exists in the circuit.
• So apply the basic laws to develop two powerful techniques
for circuit analysis:

Mesh analysis: which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

Nodal analysis: which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law(KCL),

 MESH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
• Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method.
• A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.(loop is a closed path with no node
passed more than once).
• Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
• Mesh analysis is only applicable to a circuit that is planar.
• A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another; otherwise it
is nonplanar.
• Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL
to find unknown currents.
• paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a mesh.
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
• The current through a mesh is known as mesh current.
• Step1: mesh currents i1 and i2are assigned to meshes 1 and2.
• Step2: mesh current may be assigned to each mesh. (assume that each mesh current flows clockwise)
• Step 3: apply KVL to each mesh.
Mesh 1 R1i1+R3 (i1-i2)-V1 =0
(R1+R3)i1 – R3i2 = V1
Mesh 2 R2i2+ V2+ R3(i2-i1) =0
(R2+R3)i2 –R3i1 = -V
 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
• The presence of the current sources reduces the number of equations.
CASE 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider the circuit , for example. We set i2= -5A and write a
mesh equation for the other mesh in the usual way; that is,

CASE 2: When a current source exists between two meshes: Consider the circuit for example. We create a supermesh by
excluding the current source and any elements connected in series with it.
“ A supermesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in common.”

Apply KCL at node 0

 NODE-VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
• A node is a point at which two or more circuit elements are joined together.
• In node voltage analysis, we first select one of the nodes as the reference node.
• Usually one end of a voltage source is selected as the reference node (the negative reference polarity for
each of the node voltages is at the reference node ), reference node potential is always zero.

• The number of nonreference nodes is equal to the number of independent equations that we
will derive.
• Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.

For Node 1

For Node 2
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• CASE 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference
node, we simply set the voltage at the non reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage
source. V1=10 V
• CASE 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two
nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or super node; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.
“A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected
between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.”

Apply KVL
properties of a supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint
equation needed to solve for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
 Theorems
• In circuit analysis, analyze a circuit without tampering with its original configuration.
• A major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious
computation is involved.
• To overcome this complexity, engineers over the years have developed some theorems to
simplify circuit analysis.
• Such theorems include
 Thevenin’s theorem

 Norton’s theorems theorem

 Superposition theorem

 Maximum power transfer theorem

Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits

 Thevenin’s Theorem
Statement: Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source (VTh) in series with a resistor (RTh).
VTh- open-circuit voltage at the terminals and
RTh- input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned
off.

Two circuits are said to be equivalent means, they have the same voltage-current relation at their terminals.
The terminals are made open-circuited (by removing the load), no current flows, so that the open-circuit voltage
across the terminals are equal to the voltage source VTh.
The current through the load IL and the voltage across the load VL are easily
determined using
 CASE: 2 DEPENDENT SOURCE
• If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with
superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit
variables.
• We apply a voltage source v0 at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current i 0.
• Alternatively, we may insert a current source i 0 at terminals a and b
and determine the resulting voltage v0.
• In either approach we may assume any value of v0 and i0.
• For example, we may use v0 = 1V or i0= 1A
 Superposition theorem
• If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a specific variable (voltage or
current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis
• Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add them up.
The latter approach is known as the superposition.
Defn: The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is
the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting
alone.
Condition:
 We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned off. This implies
that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open
circuit).
 Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
For the circuit in Fig, use the superposition theorem to find i.

where , i1,i2and i3 are due to the 12-V, 24-V, and 3-A sources respectively. To get , consider the
circuit
 Alternating voltages and currents
Introduction:
• Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits.
A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current alternates between positive
and negative values at regular intervals.
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
DC circuits: circuits excited by constant or time-invariant sources.
AC circuits: circuits excited by variable or time-variant sources.

• The voltage which changes with respect to time is known as Sinusoidal Voltage.
Voltage: v = Vm sin wt v- voltage at a time t
Vm- Maximum voltage
• The current which changes with respect to time is known as Sinusoidal current.
Current: i = Im sin wt i-current at a time t
Im- Maximum current
 Sinusoidal waveform.
 Alternating quantity.
AC waveform:
Sinusoidal waveforms: are periodic waveforms whose shape can be plotted using the sine or
cosine function.
The magnitude of the induced voltage depends on the angular position of the conductor in the
magnetic field.

v = Vm sin wt
Alternating quantity
The sign of the induced voltage/ current changes for every 180 degree.
Instantaneous quantity
The amount of induced voltage changes for every instants.
Magnitude is not constant.
Cycle:
A set of positive and negative value called one cycle.
Magnitude / Amplitude:
The amount of induced volt/ current and represented in y-axis.
Frequency:( Hz)
Number of cycles per seconds.
Period / Time: (Sec)
Time to complete one cycle.
T= 1/f
Angular velocity ():
Angle cover per second.
1 revolution = 360= 2π
= 2πf
Θ=t
Voltage (v) = Vm sint
Current(i)= Im sint
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid.

Peak to peak
Vpp= Vm-(-Vm)
= 2Vm
Phase angle :
Angle difference between first zero crossing point.
Power factor:
Cos of the phase angle.
Power factor= cos
 Average value
• The average value of AC (sinusoidal voltage or current) is, the amount of AC voltage needed to
produce same amount of current as produced by the DC when it applied at the same circuit.

Divide the one cycle into N equal parts.

v1,v2,v3….vn and –v1.-v2,-v3…-vn.
=0
• The average value of sinusoidal alternating voltage or current over one cycle is zero. It is
because the area of positive half cycle is exactly equal to the area of negative half cycle.
However, the average value over half cycle either positive or negative is not zero. Thus, the
average value of sinusoidal voltage or current means half cycle average value.
Appln: To find the DC output of the rectifier.
Divide the half cycle into N equal parts.

Use integral for continuous addition.

= 0.637Vm=DC
 Phasors
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
• It is more convenient then sine and cosine function.

where r is the magnitude of z, and is the phase of z.

 Addition:

Euler’s identity:
V is the phasor representation of v(t).
voltage-current relationships
 Impedance and Admittance

The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms.
• The impedance represents the opposition that the circuit exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current.
The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens
Examples: 1
Example:2