William Stallïngs

Computer
Organization and
Architecture
6th Edition

Chapter
External Memory
Types of External
Memory
• Magnetic Disk
RAID
Removable
• Optical
CD-ROM
CD-RecordabIe (CD-
R)
CD-
R/W
DVD
• Magneti
c Tape
Magnetic
Disk
• Disk substrate(/k d) coated with
magnetizable material
• Substrate used to be aluminium (1s)
• Now glass
Improved surface uniformity
— Increases reliability
Reduction in surface defects(fér¿)
— Reduced read/write errors
Lower flight heights (See later)
BeRer stiffness (‹y)
Better shock/damage resistance
Read and Write Mechanisms
• Recording and retrieval via conductive coil(.4g )
called a head
• May be single read/write head or separate ones
• During read/write, head is stationary( 1),
plat:ter(M) rotates
• Write
— Current through coil produces magnetic field
— Pulses( ‹tfi) sent to head
— Magnetic pattern recorded on surface below
• Read (traditional)
— Magnetic field moving relative to coil produces current
— Coil is the same for read and write
• Read (contemporary)
— Separate read head, close to write head
— Partially shielded magneto resistive (MR, %rx) sensor
— Electrical resistance depends on direction of magnetic
field
Inductive(4i+ èù) Write MR
Read
.,.
Data Organization and Formatting
• Concentric rings or tracks
Gaps between tracks
Reduce gap to increase capacity
Same number of bits per track (variable
packing
density)
Constant angular velocity
• Tracks divided into sectors
• Minimum block size is one sector
• May have more than one sector per
block
Disk Data La
Trøcks

outInter-sector gap
Inter-trøck gøp
Disk Velocity
• Bit near centre of rotating disk
passes fixed point slower than bit on
outside of disk
• Increase spacing between bits in
diPerent tracks
• Rotate disk at constant angular velocity
(CAV) Gives pie shaped sectors and
concentric tracks Individual tracks and
sectors addressable
Move head to given track and wait for
given sector Waste of space on outer tracks
Lower data density
•
Disk La out Methods Dia
ram

(a) Coastant angular velocity (bl Multiple zoried recording

Finding Sectors
• Must be able to identify stal of track
and sector
• Format disk
Additional information not available to user
Marks tracks and sectors
Characteristics of Disk S
stems
Head Motion Platters
Fixed Head (one per track) Single-Platter
Movable Head (one per surface) Multiple-Platter

Disk Portability Head Mechanism

Nonremovable disk Contact (floppy)
Removable disk Fixed gap
Aerodynamic gap (Winchester)
Sldes (* its T ¥)
Single-Sided
Double-Sided
Fixed/Movable Head
Disk
• Fixed head
One read write head per track
Heads mounted (e Z) on fixed
ridged(/9f_) arm
• Movable head
One read write head per side
Mounted on a movable arm
Removable or
Not
• Removable disk
Can be removed from drive and replaced
with another disk
Provides unlimited storage
capacity Easy data transfer
between systems
• Nonremovable disk
Permanently mounted in
the drive
Multiple Platter
• One head per side
• Heads are joined and aligned
• Aligned tracks on each platter form
cylinders
• Data is striped(ty›/¿4.f›Jy) by cylinder
reduces head movement
Increases speed (transfer rate)
 Resdfwriie heed i I ¡or
surfsoï
Multi le
Platters

'surface 2
Surfaœ 1

Surfæx0

Uuani
Floppy Disk
• 8",5.25",3.5"
• Small capacity
Up to 1.44Mbyte (2.88M never
popular)
• Slow
• Universal
• Cheap
• Obsolete? (//t#t)
Winchester Hard Disk (1)
• Developed by IBM in Winchester (USA)
• Sealed unit
• One or more platters (disks)
• Heads fly on boundary layer of air as
disk spins
• Very small head to disk gap
• Getting more robust
Winchester Hard Disk (2)
• Universal
• Cheap
• Fastest external
storage
• Getting larger all the
time
Multiple Gigabyte now
usual
Removable Hard
Disk
• ZIP
Cheap
Very common
Only 100M
• JAZ
Not cheap
IG
• L-120 (a: drive)
Also reads 3.5” floppy
Becoming more popular?
• All obsoleted by CD-R and CD-
R/W?
Speed
• Seek time
Moving head to correct track
• (Rotational) Iatency(‹¿Q)
Waiting for data to rotate
under head
• Access time = Seek +
Latency
• Transfer rate
Timi of Disk I/O
n Transfer

Wait for Wait for See Rotational Data

Device Channel k Delay Transfer

Device Busy
RAID
• Redundant Array of Independent Disks
• Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
• 7 levels (0=6)
• Not a hierarchy
• Common Characteristics
Set of physical disks viewed as single logical
drive by
o/S
Data distributed across physical
drives Can use redundant capacity to
store parity information
 Z'ogc J76

P‹x›r

u 1 xccllcnt
d Pot:r
RAID Level 0
• No redundancy
• Data striped across all disks
• Round Robin striping
• Increase speed (Performance)
Multiple data requests probably not on same
disk
Disks seek in parallel
A set of data is likely to be striped across
multiple
disks

Strip Size: Block or Sector

 Physical Phjsłcal Phjxlcal Phys'lwal
Disk 3

strip 2

strip
7
RAID Level 1
• Mirrored Disks
• Data is striped across disks
• 2 copies of each stripe on separate
disks
• Read from either
• Write to both
• Recovery is simple
Swap faulty disk & re-mirror
No down time
• Expensive
RAID Level Mirrored
1

strip 7
st ri¡i 11
RAID Level 2
• Disks are synchronized
• Very small stripes
Ohen single byte/word
• Error correction calculated across
corresponding bits on disks
• Multiple parity disks store Hamming
code error correction in corresponding
positions
• Lots of redundancy
Expensive
Not used
RAID Level
2 throu h cod
- Redundan Hammin e
RAID Level 3
• Similar to RAID 2
• Only one redundant disk, no matter
how large
the array
• Simple parity bit for each set of
corresponding
bits
• Data on failed drive can be
reconstructed from surviving data
and parity info
• Very high transfer rates
RAID Level 3 — Bit-interleaved(x@) pariÇ
RAID Level 4
• Each disk operates independently
• Good for high I/O request rate
• Large stripes
• Bit by bit parity calculated across
stripes on each disk
• Parity stored on parity disk
RAID Level 4 — Block-
level
ari
block 0 block 1 block 2 block 3
block 4 block 5 block 6 block 7
block 8 block 9 block 10 block 11
block 12 block 13 block 14 block 15

X4(i) = X0(i) O+ X1(i) O X2(i) O

X3(i)
X4’(i) X0(i) O+ X1’(i) O+ X2(i) O+ X3(i)
X0(i) O X1’(i) O+ X2(i) O+ X3(i) O X1(i) O
X1(i)
= X4(i) & X1(i) & X1*(i)
RAID Level 5
• Like RAID 4
• Parity striped across all disks
• Round robin allocation for parity
stripe
• Avoids RAID 4 bottleneck at parity disk
• Commonly used in network servers

• DOES NOT MEAN 5 DISKS!!!!!

RAID Level 5
- Block-level distributed
ari
block 0 block 1 block 2 block 3
block 4 block 5 block 6 block 7
block 8 block 9 block 10 block
11
block 12 block 13 block 14
block
block block 17 block 18
15
16
block
19
RAID Level 6
• Two calculations
• Stored in separate blocks on
diPerent disks
• User requirement of N disks needs
N+2
• High data availability
Three disks need to fail for data loss
Significant write penalty (‹tJ#)
 RAID Level 6
- Dual redundan

block I bloch
block 5 2 block 7
block 8 bloch block block
9 6 10
block 12 block 13
block 14
Optical Storage CD-ROM
• Originally for audio
• 650Mbytes giving over 70 minutes audio
• Polycarbonate coated with highly
reflective coat,
usually aluminium
• Data stored as pits
• Read by reflecting laser
• Constant packing density
• Constant linear velocity (CLV)
CD
Compact Disk. A nonerasablc disk that stores digitixcd audio information. The
standard system uses 12-cm disks and can record more thali 60 minutes of
unintemipted playing
time.

CD-ROM
Compact Disk Read-Only Memory. A tionemsable disk used for storing computer data.
The standard system rises 12-cm disks and can hold more than 650 Mbytes.

CD-R
ID Recordable. Similar to a CD-ROM. The riser can z rite to the disk only
once.

CD-RW
CD Rewritable. Similar to a CD-ROM. The user can emse and ren'rite to the disk
multiple times.
CD O
eration
Protective
Labet

Polycarbonate Q
@

Laser
ransmiU
receive
 Rotation of
disk
Land bit
=1

Senso
r Pris
m
CD-ROM Drive Speeds
• Audio is single speed
Constant linier velocity
1.2 ms-1
Track (spiral) is 5.27km long
Gives 4391 seconds = 73.2 minutes
• Other speeds are quoted as multiples
• e.g. 24x
• Quoted figure is maximum drive can
achieve
CD-ROM Format

Sx Cor
Layered
Ilti FF x lti tlli
ECC

• Mode 0=bIank data field

• I'ñode 1=2048 byte data+error
correction
• Mode 2=2336 byte data
Random Access
CD-ROM
on
• DiPicult
• I'ñove head to rough(ty•tf)
position
• Set correct speed
• Read address
• Adjust to required location
CD-ROM for & against
• Large capacity (?)
• Easy to mass
produce
• Removable
• Robust(;8›y)

• Expensive for small

runs
• Slow
• Read only
Other Optical
Storage
• CD-RecordabIe (CD-R)
WORM (Write-Once Read-Many)
Now affordable
Compatible with CD-ROM drives
• CD-RW
Erasable
Getting cheaper
Mostly CD-ROM drive
compatible Phase change
— Material has two different reflectivities (/¿4i f1) in
different phase states
DVD what's in a
name?
• Digital Video Disk
Used to indicate a player for
movies
Only plays video disks
• Digital Versatile(y e11&) Disk
Used to indicate a computer drive
— Will read computer disks and play video
disks
DVD
Digital Versatile Disk. .4 technology to‘ producing digitized, compressed
representation of video information. as well as large volumes of other digital data.
Both 8 and 12 em diameters are used, with a double-sided capacity of up to 17 Gbytes.
The basic DVD is read-only (DVD-ROM).

DVD-R
DVD Recoi dable. Siiiiilar to a DVD-ROM. The user can wriie to the disk only
once. Only one-sided disks can be used,

DVD-RW
DVD Rewritable. Similar to a DVD-ROM. The user can erase and rewrite to the
disk
multiple times. Only one-sided disks can be used.
DVD
technology
• Multi-layer
• Very high capacity (4.7G per layer)
• Full length movie on single disk
Using I*IPEG compression
• Finally standardized (honest!)
• Movies carry regional coding
• Players only play correct region
films
DVD — Writable
• Loads of trouble with standards
• First generation DVD drives may not
read first generation DVD-W disks
• First generation DVD drives may not read
CD-
RW disks
• Wait for it to settle down before
buying!
DVD-ROM, double-sided, dual-layer - Capacity 17 GB

Polycarbonate substrate, side 2

Semireflective layer, side 2

Polycarbonate •7er, side 2

Fully reflective layer, side 2

Fully reflective layer, side 1

Polycarbonate layer, side I

Semireflective I•7er, side 1 Laser focuses on pits in one I•7er
on one side at a time. Disk must
Polycarbonate substrate, side 1 be flipped to read other side.
Magnetic Tape
• Serial access
• Slow
• Very cheap
• Backup and
archive
Digital Audio Tape (DAT)
• Uses rotating head (like
video)
• High capacity on small
tape 4Gbyte
uncompressed 8Gbyte
compressed
• Backup of PC/network
servers