Chapter Two

Conceptualizing Ethics: a Philosophical Discourse

 Definition

Ethics - moral philosophy – branch of philosophy that addresses questions

about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue
and vice, justice, etc.
It involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behavior.
Stems from the Latin word Ethos which refers to customs and norms of society
that has to be respected by every individual.
These ideals of the ethos demand immediate and unquestionable obedience
because they are respected values of society.
Ethics, however, is not guided by values that are not rationally justified.
Thus, Ethics is not about unquestionable obedience, rather it is a matter of
Among the different replies people would answer to “what is ethics”:
"Ethics has to do with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong."
"Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs."
"Being ethical is doing what the law requires."
"Ethics consists of the standards of behavior our society accepts."
These replies might be typical of our own.
The meaning of "ethics" is hard to pin down, and the views many
people have about ethics are shaky.
First - many people - equate ethics - feelings.
But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following one's feelings.
A person following his or her feelings may recoil from doing what is
right - feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical.
Nor should one identify ethics with religion. - most religions -
advocate high ethical standards.
Yet if ethics - confined to religion – It would only be applied only
to religious people.
But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the
saint.
Thus, Ethics - cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as
religion.
Being ethical is also not the same as following the law.
Laws - often incorporates ethical standards - most citizens subscribe.
But laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is ethical.
Slavery, colonialism, holocaust, apartheid – all were legal but not
ethical.
Finally, being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever society
accepts."
In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact, ethical.
But standards of behavior in society can deviate from what is ethical.
An entire society can become ethically corrupt.
Nazi Germany is a good example of a morally corrupt society.
 What, then, is ethics? Ethics is two things.
 First, ethics - well based standards of right and wrong that prescribe
what humans ought to do - in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to
society, fairness, or specific virtues.
 Ethics, for instance – about those standards - impose the reasonable
distance against vices such as rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander,
and fraud.
 Ethical standards - include those that enjoin virtues of honesty,
compassion, and loyalty.
 Ethical standards – includes rights, such as the right to life, the right
to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy.
 Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are
supported by consistent and well-founded reasons.
Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of one's ethical
standards.
 Feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is ethical.
It is necessary to constantly examine one's standards to ensure that they
are reasonable and well-founded.
Thus, ethics also mean the continuous effort of studying our own moral
beliefs and our moral conduct, and striving to ensure that we, and the
institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are reasonable and
solidly-based.
 Approaches of Ethics

I. Metaethics
“Meta” - after or beyond,
Metaethics involves a bird’s-eye-view of the entire project of ethics.
Metaethics - study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts.
The least precisely defined area of moral philosophy.
It covers issues from moral semantics to moral epistemology.
Two issues –
(1) metaphysical issues - concerning whether morality exists independently of
humans, and
(2) psychological issues - concerning the underlying mental basis of our moral
judgments and conduct.
 Meta-ethics - seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, and ethical
 Metaphysical Issues: Objectivism/Universalism and
Subjectivism/Relativism
Metaphysics - study of the kinds of things that exist in the universe.
The metaphysical component of metaethics involves discovering
specifically whether moral values are eternal truths that exist in a spirit-
like realm, or simply human conventions.
Two types : Universalism (Other worldly) and Relativism (This
Worldly).
 i. Objectivism (Universalism)
Moral values are objective - exist in a spirit-like realm beyond
subjective human conventions.
Are absolute, or eternal - never change,
Universal - apply to all rational creatures around the world and
throughout time.
Plato - inspired by the field of mathematics - 1+1=2 - timeless concepts
that never change, and apply everywhere in the universe.
Humans do not invent numbers, and humans cannot alter them.
Plato explained the eternal character of mathematics by stating that they
Moral values also are absolute truths and thus are also abstract, spirit-like
entities.
In this sense, for Plato, moral values are spiritual objects.
Divine commands - A different other-worldly approach to the metaphysical
status of morality - Sometimes called voluntarism - inspired by the notion of an
all-powerful God, who is in control of everything – Morality is issuing from
God’s will.
God simply wills things, and they become reality.
God wills the physical world into existence, He wills human life into existence
and, similarly, He wills all moral values into existence.
God informs humans of these commands by implanting us with moral intuitions
 ii. Relativism (Subjectivism)
The this-worldly approach - follows in the skeptical philosophical
tradition - Sextus Empiricus - denies the objective status of moral values.
Technically, skeptics did not reject moral values themselves, but only
denied that values exist as spirit-like objects, or as divine commands in the
mind of God.
Moral values - strictly human inventions, a position that has since been
called moral relativism.
 Two types: individual relativism and cultural relativism

The former one - holds that individual people create their own moral
It is when individual men and women believe that their moral compass
is superior to another.
It is when people do what they think is right in their own hearts.
Friedrich Nietzsche - there is no objective standard to any form of
morality - argued that the superhuman creates his or her morality distinct
from and in reaction to the slave-like value system of the masses.
 The superman is a man who lives by his own rules and therefore does
not follow the crowd.
 Übermensch means man should strive for kind of existence not
 Pleasure and pain are part of human experience.
 The overman - should strive for existence above this sensation.
 As far as the "god is died" Nietzsche meant that society's loss of
religious commitment had which led to the "death" of God.
 Religion was, and continues to be the deciding factor in which most
persons base their morality and, for all practical purposes, their
perception of life's "meaning.“
 Without the presence of this God, it would be natural for man to lose
his sense of self, purpose and moral direction.
 “Man is condemned to be free.” Jean-Paul Sartre (1948)
 The second is cultural relativism - maintains that morality is
grounded in the approval of one’s society – and not simply in
the preferences of individual people.
Sextus, Michel Montaigne and William Graham Sumner - deny
the absolute and universal nature of morality and hold instead that
moral values in fact change from society to society throughout time
and throughout the world.
Cite examples of values that differ dramatically from one culture
to another, such as attitudes about polygamy, homosexuality and
All beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his
own social context.
“Right” and “wrong” are culture-specific.
What is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in
another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has
the right to judge another society’s customs.
All cultures are worthy in their own right and are of equal value.
All cultures are considered to be equally legitimate expressions of
human existence, to be studied from a purely neutral perspective.
Truth - variable and not absolute.
What constitutes right and wrong is determined solely by or by society.
Since truth is not objective, there can be no objective standard which
applies to all cultures
No culture is superior to any other culture when comparing systems of
morality, law, politics, etc.
All cultural beliefs - equally valid - truth itself is relative, depending on
the cultural environment.
All religious, ethical, aesthetic, and political beliefs are completely
relative to the individual within a cultural identity.
 Psychological Issues in Metaethics
Psychological basis of our moral judgments and conduct, particularly
understanding what motivates us to be moral.
“Why be moral?”
Some answers to the question “Why be moral?” are to avoid punishment, to
gain praise, to attain happiness, to be dignified, or to fit in with society.
i. Egoism and Altruism
 Egoism: Psychological motive - inherent selfishness of humans.
 Thomas Hobbes - many, if not all, of our actions are prompted by selfish
desires.
 Even if an action seems selfless, such as donating to charity, there are still
selfish causes for this, such as experiencing power over other people.
 Psychological egoism - maintains that self-oriented interests ultimately
motivate all human actions.
Psychological hedonism - pleasure is the specific driving force behind all of
our actions.
Joseph Butler – argued that instinctive selfishness and pleasure prompt much
of our conduct.
Butler also argued that we also have an inherent psychological capacity to
show benevolence to others.
Psychological altruism - maintains that at least some of our actions are
motivated by instinctive benevolence.
ii. Emotion and Reason

 A dispute concerning the role of reason in motivating moral actions.

 If, for example, I make the statement “abortion is morally wrong,” am

I making a rational assessment or only expressing my feelings?

 David Hume argued that moral assessments involve our emotions, and

not our reason.

 We need a distinctly emotional reaction in order to make a moral

pronouncement.
 Reason might be of service in giving us the relevant data, but, in

Hume’s words, “reason is, and ought to be, the slave of the passions.”
 Others argued that moral assessments are indeed acts of reason.
 Immanuel Kant - although emotional factors often do influence our -
true moral action is motivated only by reason when it is free from
emotions and desires.
 Kurt Baier (1958) - proposed in direct opposition to the emotivist

tradition - focuses more broadly on the reasoning and argumentation

process that takes place when making moral choices.
If I claim that it is wrong to steal someone’s car, then I should be able to
For example, I could argue that stealing Henok’s car is
wrong since this would upset him, violate his ownership
rights, or put the thief at risk of getting caught.
Baier - proper moral decision making involves giving the
best reasons in support of one course of action versus another.
All of our moral choices are, or at least can be, backed by
some reason or justification.
 iii. Male and Female Morality
 Whether there is a distinctly female approach to ethics - grounded in the

psychological differences between men and women.

 Two claims: (1) traditional morality is male-centered, and (2) there is a

unique female perspective of the world which can be shaped into a value

theory.
 Feminist philosophers - traditional morality is male-centered - modeled

after practices - traditionally male-dominated - acquiring property,

engaging in business contracts, and governing societies.

 The rigid systems of rules required for trade and government were then
taken as models for the creation of equally rigid systems of moral rules,
Women, by contrast - traditionally had a nurturing role by raising children and
overseeing domestic life - less rule following, and more spontaneous and creative action.
Using the woman’s experience as a model for moral theory, then, the basis of morality
would be spontaneously caring for others as would be appropriate in each unique
circumstance.
On this model, the agent becomes part of the situation and acts caringly within that
context.
This stands in contrast with male-modeled morality where the agent is a mechanical
actor who performs his required duty, but can remain distanced from and unaffected by
the situation.
A care-based approach to morality, as it is sometimes called, is offered by feminist
ethicists as either a replacement for or a supplement to traditional male-modeled moral
systems.
 Normative Ethics
It is about how to determine ethical values.
It deals with what the population should believe to be right and wrong.
Because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of
actions - normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics, which studies the
nature of moral statements, and from applied ethics, which places
normative rules in practical contexts.
Involves arriving at moral standards that regulate right and wrong

conduct.
It is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behavior.
The key assumption - there is only one ultimate criterion of moral
conduct, whether it is a single rule or a set of principles.

Golden Rule
It is a classic example of a normative principle: “We should do to others
what we would want others to do to us.”
 It is an example of a normative theory that establishes a single
principle against which we judge all actions.
Other normative theories focus on a set of foundational principles, or

a set of good character traits.

 Major Ethical Theories

i. Virtue Ethics Theories

Stresses the importance of developing good habits of character, such as
benevolence.
Historically, virtue theory is one of the oldest normative traditions in
Western philosophy, having its roots in ancient Greek civilization.
Plato emphasized four virtues in particular, which were later called
cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice.
Wisdom achieved when reason remained undisturbed by appetites and
passions and got convenient condition to the apprehension of forms
Courage is when the spirited part of the soul is kept with in limit;
when our passion and drives are governed by reason, we exhibit the
virtue of courage.
Temperance is when appetites are ruled by reason, the virtue of
temperance are exhibited.
Justice is a virtue achieved with the interconnection of the three virtues
and the fulfillment of the function of the soul together.
Other important virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-respect, good
temper, and sincerity.
virtue theorists hold that we should avoid acquiring bad character
traits, or vices, such as cowardice, insensibility, injustice, and vanity.
 Analyzing 11 specific virtues, Aristotle argued that most virtues fall at a
mean between more extreme character traits.
 With courage, for example, if I do not have enough courage, I develop
the disposition of cowardice, which is a vice.
 If I have too much courage I develop the disposition of rashness which
is also a vice.
 According to Aristotle, it is not an easy task to find the perfect mean
between extreme character traits.
 In fact, we need assistance from our reason to do this.
 Medieval theologians supplemented Greek lists of virtues with three Christian
 ii. Duty (Deontology) Theories
Base morality on specific, foundational principles of obligation.
Sometimes called deontological, from the Greek word deon, or duty, in
view of the foundational nature of our duty or obligation.
Sometimes called non-consequentialist since these principles are
obligatory, irrespective of the consequences that might follow from our
actions.
For example, it is wrong not to care for our children even if it results in
some great benefit, such as financial savings.
There are four central duty theories.
Major Duty Theories
1. Samuel Pufendorf - classified dozens of duties under three headings: duties to

God, duties to oneself, and duties to others.

 Concerning our duties towards God, he argued that there are two kinds: a

theoretical duty to know the existence and nature of God, and a practical

duty to both inwardly and outwardly worship God.

 Concerning our duties towards oneself, these are also of two sorts: duties of

the soul, which involve developing one’s skills and talents, and duties of the

body, which involve not harming our bodies, as we might through gluttony
 Concerning our duties towards others, Pufendorf divides these
between absolute duties, which are universally binding on people, and
conditional duties, which are the result of contracts between people.
 Absolute duties are of three sorts: avoid wronging others, treat people
as equals, and promote the good of others.
 Conditional duties involve various types of agreements; the principal
one of which is the duty to keep one’s promises.
2. Rights theory: a “right” is a justified claim against another person’s

behavior – such as my right to not be harmed by you.

 Rights and duties are reciprocated - the right of one person implies the

duties of another person - Correlativity of rights and duties.

 John Locke - the laws of nature mandate that we should not harm anyone’s

life, health, liberty or possessions - our natural rights, given to us by God.

United States Declaration of Independence - Thomas Jefferson recognizes

three foundational rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Jefferson - we deduce other more specific rights from these, including the

rights of property, movement, speech, and religious expression .

The four features traditionally associated with moral rights:

i. they are natural insofar as they are not invented or created by

governments.

ii. they are universal insofar as they do not change from country to

country.

iii. they are equal in the sense that rights are the same for all

people, irrespective of gender, race, or handicap.

iv. they are inalienable which means that I cannot hand over my
3. Kant - emphasizes a single principle of duty.
 Kant argued that there is a more foundational principle of duty that

encompasses our particular duties.

 It is a single, self-evident principle of reason that he calls the “categorical

imperative.”
A categorical imperative simply mandates (order commands) an action,

irrespective of one’s personal desires, such as “You ought to do X.”

 Kant gives at least four versions of the categorical imperative, but one is

especially direct: “Treat people as an end, and never as a means to an end”.

That is, we should always treat people with dignity, and never use them as
For Kant, we treat people as an end whenever our actions toward

someone reflect the inherent value of that person.

By contrast, we treat someone as a means to an end whenever we treat
that person as a tool to achieve something else.
Suicide, for example, would be wrong since I would be treating my life
as a means to the alleviation of my misery.
Kant believes that the morality of all actions can be determined by
appealing to this single principle of duty.
4. W.D. Ross, who emphasizes prima facie duties.
Ross argues that our duties are “part of the fundamental nature of the

universe.”
However, Ross’s list of duties is much shorter, which he believes

reflects our actual moral convictions:

 Fidelity: the duty to keep promises
 Reparation: the duty to compensate others when we harm them
 Gratitude: the duty to thank those who help us
 Justice: the duty to recognize merit
 Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions of others
 Self-improvement: the duty to improve our virtue and

intelligence
 iii. Consequentialist/Teleological Theories
It is common for us to determine our moral responsibility by weighing the

consequences of our actions.

Correct moral conduct is determined solely by a cost-benefit analysis of an action’s

consequences:
 An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable

than unfavorable.
 Require that we first tally (count score calculate) both the good and bad

consequences of an action.
 Second, we then determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the
Sometimes called teleological theories, from the Greek word telos, or
end, since the end result of the action is the sole determining factor of its
morality.
In fact, the most attractive feature of consequentialism is that it appeals

to publicly observable consequences of actions.

Three subdivisions of consequentialism emerge:
1. Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that
action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent
performing the action.
2. Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that
action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.
3. Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that
action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
Types of Utilitarianism
 Jeremy Bentham - act-utilitiarianism & hedonistic utilitarianism
 Act-utilitiarianism - we tally the consequences of each action we perform
and thereby determine on a case by case basis whether an action is
morally right or wrong.
 Hedonistic utilitarianism - we tally the pleasure and pain which results
from our actions.
 Critics point out limitations in both of these aspects.
Act-utilitarianism - morally wrong to waste time on leisure activities such
as watching football – we better spent time for a greater social benefit, such
as charity work - prohibiting leisure activities doesn’t seem reasonable.
Act-utilitarianism - specific acts of torture or slavery would be morally
permissible if the social benefit of these actions outweighed the
disadvantages.
Rule-utilitarianism - revised version - addresses these problems.
Rule-utilitarianism - a behavioral code or rule is morally right if the
consequences of adopting that rule are more favorable than unfavorable
to everyone.
Unlike act utilitarianism, which weighs the consequences of each
particular action, rule-utilitarianism offers a litmus test only for the
morality of moral rules, such as “stealing is wrong.”
Adopting a rule against theft clearly has more favorable consequences
than unfavorable consequences for everyone.
The same is true for moral rules against lying or murdering.
Rule-utilitarianism, then, offers a three-tiered method for judging
conduct.
A particular action, such as stealing my neighbor’s car, is judged
wrong since it violates a moral rule against theft.
In turn, the rule against theft is morally binding because adopting this
rule produces favorable consequences for everyone.
John Stuart Mill’s version of utilitarianism is rule-oriented.
 Hedonistic utilitarianism - pleasurable consequences are the only factors that
matter, morally speaking.
 Seems too restrictive since it ignores other morally significant consequences
that are not necessarily pleasing or painful.
 For example, acts which foster loyalty and friendship are valued, yet they are
not always pleasing.
 George Edward Moore - proposed ideal utilitarianism, which involves tallying
any consequence that we intuitively recognize as good or bad (and not simply
as pleasurable or painful).
 Also, R.M. Hare proposed preference utilitarianism, which involves tallying
any consequence that fulfills our preferences.
ii. Egoism
The word “Egoism’ comes from Greek word ‘ego’, ‘I’ and therefore,
literally, ‘I-ism’.
The central concern of egoism is the ‘self’ as the beginning and of all
consideration.
Self-interest is the nucleus or central for every ethical action or
decision.
What is right and wrong is to be decided on the basis of the interest of
every egoist individual.
Egoism can take two forms, the psychological egoism and the ethical
1. Psychological Egoism
The psychological Egoism is motivated out of self-interests and aims at
self-satisfaction.
It is also doctrine about human nature, claiming that everyone by nature
is motivated primarily by his or her own interests.
According to psychological egoism, people always seeks one’s own
advantage or self interest, or always does what he thinks will give him
the greatest balance of good over evil.
This means also that ‘self-love’ is the only basic “principle” in human
nature.
The ‘ego-satisfaction” is the final aim of all activity or that” the
pleasure principle”.
Self love is the basic ethical principle.
2. Ethical Egoism
Ethical egoism maintains that each of us should look at only at the
consequences that affect us.
It views that each person ought to perform those actions that contribute
most to his or her own self-interest.
It is a theory about what ought to do, how we ought to act as with
psychological egoism.
 III. Applied Ethics

Consists of the analysis of specific, controversial moral issues

such as abortion, animal rights, or euthanasia.

Drive-by shooting - is not an applied ethical issue - everyone

agrees that this practice is grossly immoral.

Gun control - an applied ethical issue - significant groups of

people both for and against gun control.

Subdivided into convenient groups (Professional ethics) such as

medical ethics, business ethics, and environmental ethics.

Bioethics - concerned with identifying the correct approach to matters such

as euthanasia, or the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human

embryos in research.
Environmental ethics is concerned with questions such as the duties of

humans towards landscapes or species.

Business ethics - limits on managers in the pursuit of profit, or the duty of
'whistleblowers' to the general public as opposed to their employers.
It is a study which is supposed to involve practitioners as much as
professional philosophers.
It is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns what people should
believe to be right and wrong, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the
 Issues in Applied Ethics
I. Developmental Ethics
Development - as equally a moral issue/concept as it is political, legal and

economic.
there are a number of development related questions /issues that are worth of

discussion and analysis.

 In what direction and by what means should a society 'develop'?
 What are the moral obligations, if any, of rich societies to poor societies? Etc.
 What should be counted as good or bad development?
 How should the burdens and benefits of development be distributed?
 What are the most serious local, national and international impediments to

good development? Etc.

A moral concern to find out sources for moral assessment of theories and

practices of development that exist today and thereby prescribing a morally better

way outs for future development.

Studying development ethics would be extremely crucial to identify major areas

of moral consensus and controversy on practicing and defining development and

eventually develop shared general parameters for ethically based development.

 a consensus exists also on the fact that development planners should seek

strategies in which both human well-being and a healthy environment jointly

exist (i.e. the issue of sustainable development).

 Development ethics’ initial concern was assessing the development ends and

means of poor societies (third world societies).

 Universalists - utilitarians and Kantians, argue that development goals and

principles are valid for all societies.

 Particularists - communitarians and postmodern relativists, however argue that

universalism masks ethnocentrism and (Northern) cultural imperialism.

 Particularists support what can be called procedural principle which asserts that

each nation or society should grow only on its own traditions and decide its own

development ethic and path.

 The third approach - tries to avoid the extremism - development ethics should forge
a cross-cultural consensus - society's own freedom to make development choices
is one among a plurality of fundamental norms - these norms are of sufficient
generality so as not only to permit but also to require sensitivity to societal
II. Environmental Ethics
 It is a branch of ethics that studies the relation of human beings and
the environment and how ethics play a role in this.
 Believe that humans are a part of society as well as other living
creatures, which includes plants and animals.
 Thus, it is essential that every human being respect and honor this and
use morals and ethics when dealing with these creatures.
It is the discipline that broadly studies the moral relationship of human
beings to the environment.
There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect
to the environment. For example:
 Should individuals continue clearing forests for various consumption purposes?
 Should individuals continue making gasoline powered vehicles?
 What environmental obligations do individuals need to bear for future generations?
With a view to develop answers to the above moral questions on environment, three

general ethical approaches have emerged over the last 20 years.

The following technical terms can be used to describe the approaches: Libertarian

Extension, Ecologic Extension and Conservation Ethics.

Libertarian extension approach - the value of liberty must be echoed when we deal

with environment (i.e., a commitment to extend equal rights to all members of a

community).
 Defined community as consist of both non-humans and humans.
 Ecologic extension approach - emphasis must not be placed on human rights on
the recognition of the fundamental interdependence of all biological entities.
 As planet is unified entity the human race alone is of no particular significance
in the long run.
 Conservation ethics approach - look at the worth of the environment in terms of
its utility or usefulness to humans.
 Argues for the preservation of the environment as long as it has extrinsic value
to humans( it is instrumental to the welfare of human beings).
 Conservation must be understood as a means to an end and purely concerned
with mankind and intergenerational considerations.
 It is this ethic that has been also widely pronounced at the Kyoto Environment
Summit of 1997 and the three agreements reached in Rio in 1992.
 Principles of Environmental Ethics
 Duty for future generation

 The duty to limit over consumption

 The right to (live in) livable environment

 The polluter pays principles

III. Professional Ethics

 Profession, - as a systematic way of acquiring and continuous development of a balanced

combination of

 1) Training (here to mean a formal, rational, systematized and scheduled activity to transfer

knowledge from the trainer and the environment to the trainee),

 2 ) Specialty/expertise ( here refers to a situation in which the trainee ends up with being an

almost irreplaceable one/a referent point in a specific field), and

 3) Full time activity and source of livelihood ( to mean that the individual now becomes

fully engaged in the application of the knowledge so gained on full time arrangement and that
Professional ethics - ethics that enables professionals of different

fields to distinguish what is right from what is wrong using morality

as standard of evaluation and thus judge on their actions and

behaviors.
Professionals are expected to behave and act in accordance with the

codes of conduct each profession demands.

It is concerned with the moral issues that arise because of the

specialized knowledge that professionals attain, and how the use of

this knowledge should be governed when providing a service to the

 Some Selected Fundamental Codes / Principles of Professional
Ethics
 Punctuality
 Honesty and Integrity
 Confidentiality
 Impartiality (non–Partiality)
 Fairness
 Responsiveness
 Efficiency and Effectiveness