The Circulatory System

H S Biology

G. Rudolph HSB
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Why large organism need transport system

• Living organisms need to supply all their cells

with food, water and oxygen.

• Small organisms like Amoeba live in water,

and gases can easily diffuse in and out through
their cell surface membrane but large
organisms need a transport system to get
these materials to all cells.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• In many animals, like the vertebrates, this
transport system is a blood system made up
of a network of tube like vessels.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• These systems are sometimes called a
vascular system.

• They all need to have some mechanism to

push fluid along the tubes.

• For example, in the vertebrates, there is a

pump, the heart.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Alveolus in lung

O2 diffuse
Deoxygenated into blood
blood is carried
to the lungs
Oxygenated blood
return to the heart

Oxygenated
blood is carried
to all cells in the body

Deoxygenated
blood is returned
to the heart

Oxygen diffuses
from the blood
to the body cells

Figure 1: The general layout of the circulatory

G. Rudolph HSB system of a human, as seen from the front
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 Mammals have double circulatory
systems
• The main transport system of a mammal is its
blood system.

• This is sometimes called the vascular system.

• It is a network of tubes, called blood vessels.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• A pump, the heart, keeps blood flowing
through the vessels.

• Fig 1 illustrates the general layout of the blood

system.

• The arrows show the direction of blood flow.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• If you follow the arrows, beginning at the
lungs, you can see that blood flows into the
left-hand side of the heart, and then out to
the rest of the body.

• It is brought back to the right-hand side of the

heart, before going back to the lungs again.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• This is called a double circulatory system,
because the blood travels through the heart
twice on one complete journey around the
body.

G. Rudolph HSB
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Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
• The blood in the left-hand side of the heart
has come from the lungs.

• It contains oxygen, which was picked up by

the capillaries surrounding the alveoli.

• It is called oxygenated blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• This oxygenated blood is then sent around the
body.

• Some of the oxygen in it is taken up by the

body cells, which need oxygen for respiration.

• When this happens the blood becomes

deoxygenated.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The deoxygenated blood is brought back to
the right-hand side of the heart.

• It then goes to the lungs, where it becomes

oxygenated once more.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Homework
1. Why do large organisms need transport
systems?
2. What is a double circulatory system?
3. What is oxygenated blood?
4. Where does blood become oxygenated?
5. Which side of the heart contains oxygenated
blood?

G. Rudolph HSB
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 The structure of the heart
• The function of the heart is to pump blood
around the body.

• It is made of a special type of muscle called

cardiac muscle.

• This muscle contracts and relaxes regularly,

throughout life.
G. Rudolph HSB
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• Figure 2 illustrates a section through a heart.

• It is divided into four chambers.

• The two upper chambers are called atria.

• The two lower chambers are ventricles.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The chambers on the left-hand side are
completely separated from the ones on the
right-hand side by a septum.

• If you look at Figure 2, you will see that blood

flows into the heart at the top, into the atria.

• Both of the atria receive blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The left atrium receives blood from the
pulmonary veins, which come from the lungs.

• The right atrium receives blood from the rest

of the body, arriving through the venae cavae.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• From the atria, the blood flows into the
ventricles.

• The ventricles then pump it out of the heart.

• The blood in the left ventricle is pumped into

the aorta, which takes the blood around the
body.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The right ventricle pumps blood into the
pulmonary artery, which takes it to the lungs.

4 tech 1 & 2

G. Rudolph HSB
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PULMONARY ARTERY
AORTA

VENA CAVA

SEMILUNAR
VALVE PULMONARY VEIN

LEFT ATRIUM
RIGHT ATRIUM

MITRAL (BICUSPID)
VALVE
VENA CAVA
TENDON
SUPPORTING
TRICUSPID VALVE VALVE

RIGHT VENTRICLE
4 SCI
CARDIAC MUSCLE LEFT VENTRICLE

G. Rudolph HSB
SEPTUM FIGURE 2: VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH THE
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HEART
• The job of the ventricles is quite different
from the job of the atria.

• The atria simply receive blood, either from the

lungs or the body and supply it to the
ventricles.

• The ventricles pump blood out of the heart

and all round the body.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• To help them to do this, the ventricles have
much thicker, more muscular walls than the
atria.

• There is also a difference in the thickness of

the walls of the right and left ventricles.

• The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs,

which are very close to the heart.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The left ventricle, however, pumps blood all
around the body.

• The left ventricle has an especially thick wall

of muscle to enable it to do this.

G. Rudolph HSB
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Coronary arteries supply heart muscle

• In Figure 3, you can see that there are blood

vessels on the outside of the heart.

• They are called the coronary arteries.

• These vessels supply blood to the heart

muscles.
G. Rudolph HSB Tech
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• It may seem odd that this is necessary, when
the heart is full of blood.

• However, the muscles of the heart are so thick

that the food and oxygen in the blood inside
the heart would not be able to diffuse to all
the muscles quickly enough.

Arts II
G. Rudolph HSB
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• The heart muscle needs a constant supply of
food and oxygen, so that it can keep
contracting and relaxing.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 AORTA
VENA CAVA
FROM HEAD
PULMONARY ARTERY

PULMONARY
VEINS
FIGURE 3: External
Appearance
CORONARY ARTERY of a human heart

VENA CAVA
FROM THE BODY
MUSCLE OF LEFT VENTRICLE
G. Rudolph HSB
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 Home work
1. What kind of muscle is found in the heart?
2. Which parts of the heart receive blood from (a)
the lungs, and (b) the body?
3. Which parts of the heart pump blood into
the (a) pulmonary artery, and (b) the aorta?
4. Why do the ventricles have thicker walls than the
atria?
5. Why does the left ventricle have a thicker wall
than the right ventricle?
6. What is the function of the coronary artery?
G. Rudolph HSB
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 Heart beat
• The heart beats as the cardiac muscles in its walls contract
and relax.

• When they contract, the heart becomes smaller, squeezing

blood out.

• This is called systole.

• When they relax, the heart becomes larger, allowing the

blood to flow into the atria and ventricles.

• This is called diastole.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Fig 4 illustrates this.

• The heart beat begins in the wall of the right

atrium, then spreads throughout the heart.

• A group of specialised muscle cells begins and

maintains the heart beat.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The cells are together known as the sinoatrial
node or pacemaker.

• In humans, if the pacemaker becomes

defective, it may sometimes be replaced by an
artificial one.

• The X-ray photograph in Fig 6.5 shows an

artificial pacemaker in position next to
someone's heart.
G. Rudolph HSB
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 .
Semilunar valve Figure 4: Demonstration
shut, preventing
blood from flowing
of the pumping of the heart
into the ventricle

muscles relax
allowing
blood to flow into
Artrioventricular heart from veins
valve open

Diastole
G. Rudolph HSB
All muscles are [Link] flows into heart
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 valves in veins are
forced shut by pressure
semilunar of blood, stopping bloo
valves remain shut d from flowing back
into the veins

muscle of atria
contracts, squeezing
blood into the ventricle

Atrial systole Muscles of atria contract

remain relaxed. Blood
G. Rudolph HSB
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forced from atria into ventricles.
 semilunar valves Ventricular systole
are forced open by Muscles of atria relax.
pressure of blood Muscles of ventricles contract.
Blood forced out of
ventricles into arteries

atrioventricular valves
are forcec shut by
pressure of blood

muscle of ventricles
contracts, forcing
G. Rudolph HSB
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 Figure 5: The X-ray photograph shows
an artificial pacemaker in position
someone's heart

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Blood flows one way through heart
valves
• There is a valve between the left atrium and
the left ventricle and another between the
right atrium and ventricles are called
atrioventricular valves (see Fig 4).

4 arts 1 & 2

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The valve on the left-hand side of the heart is
made of two parts and is called the bicuspid
valve, or the mitral.

• The valve on the right-hand side has three

parts, and is called the tricuspid valve.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The function of these valves is to stop blood
flowing from the ventricles back to the atria.

• This is important, so that when the ventricles

contract, the blood is pushed up into the
arteries, not back into the atria.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• As ventricles contract, the pressure of the
blood pushes valves upwards.

• The tendons attached to them stop them from

going too far.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Home work
1. What is (a) systole, and (b) diastole?

2. Where are the atrioventricular valves?

3. What is their function?

4. Why are these valves supported by tendons?

5. What is the sinoatrial node?

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Blood Vessels

G. Rudolph HSB
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There are three kinds of blood vessels
• There are three main kinds of blood vessels:
arteries, capillaries and veins (see Fig 6).

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.

• They divide again and again, and eventually
form very tiny vessels called capillaries.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The capillaries gradually join up with one
another to form large vessels called veins.

• Veins carry blood towards the heart.

• All veins with the exception of the pulmonary

and umbilical veins carry deoxygenated blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Arteries have thick elastic walls.
• When blood flows out of the heart, it enters the
arteries.

• The blood is then at very high pressure, because it

has been forced out of the heart by the contraction
of the muscular ventricles.

• Arteries therefore need very strong walls to

withstand the high pressure of the blood flowing
through them.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The blood does not flow smoothly through the
arteries.

• It pulses through, as the ventricles contract

and relax.

• The arteries have elastic tissue in their walls

which can stretch and recoil with the force of
the blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• This helps to make the flow of blood
smoother.

• You can feel your arteries stretch and recoil

when you feel your pulse in your wrist.

• The blood pressure in the arteries of your arm

can be measured using a sphygmomanometer
(see Fig 7).

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Capillaries are very narrow, with thin
walls.
• The arteries gradually divide to form smaller and
smaller vessels (see Fig 8).

• These are the capillaries.

• The capillaries are very small and penetrate to every

part of the body.

• No cell is very far away from a capillary.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The function of the capillaries is to take food,
oxygen and other materials to all the cells in
the body, and to take away their waste
materials.

• To do this, their walls must be very thin so

that substances can get in and out of them
easily. The walls of the smallest capillaries are
only one cell thick (see Fig 6.6).

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The function of the capillaries is to take food,
oxygen and other materials to all the cells in
the body, and to take away their waste
materials.

• To do this, their walls must be very thin so

that substances can get in and out of them
easily. The walls of the smallest capillaries are
only one cell thick (see Fig 6).

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Veins have one-way valves
• The capillaries gradually join up again to form
veins.

• By the time the blood gets to the veins, it is at

a much lower pressure than it was in the
arteries.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The blood flows more slowly and smoothly
now.

• There is no need for veins to have such thick,

strong, elastic walls.

• If the veins were narrow, this would slow

down the blood even more.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• To help keep the blood moving easily through
them, the space inside the veins, called the
lumen, is much wider than the lumen of the
arteries.

• Veins have valves in them to stop the blood

flowing backwards (see Fig 9).

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Valves are not needed in the arteries, because
the force of the heart beat keeps blood
moving forwards through them.

• Blood is also kept moving in the veins by the

con­traction of muscles around them (see Fig
10).

• The large veins in your legs are squeezed by

your leg muscles when you walk.
G. Rudolph HSB
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• This helps to push the blood back up to your
heart.

• If a person is confined to bed for a long time,

then there is a danger that the blood in these
veins will not be kept moving.

• A clot may form in them, called a thrombosis.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• If the clot is carried to the lungs, it could get
stuck in the arterioles.

• This is called a pulmonary embolism, and it

may prevent the circulation reaching part of
the lungs.

• In serious cases this can cause death.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Thick outer wall
Figure: 6 Sections
through the three Thick layer of muscle
types of blood
vessels
Small lumen
Smooth lining
An Artery

Very thin lumen

Wall made of a single
A Capillary layer of cells
Fairly thin outer wall

Thin layer of muscle and elastic fibre

Large lumen
G. Rudolph HSB
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A Vein Smooth lining
 Figure 7: A sphygmomanometer
being used to measure blood pressure

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Arterioles
Artery
Venule

Capillary network Vein

Figure 8: A capillary network

Pressure from the

body muscle
The valves
are like
Pocket
Set in
The wall
Open Valve Of the
vein Closed Valve
Pressure from the
body muscle
G. Rudolph HSB
Figure 9:
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 Figure 10: A capillary, shown in blue, snakes its way
through muscle tissue. This is magnified about 600
times.

G. Rudolph HSB
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Hypertension is a serious problem
• High blood pressure or hypertension is one of
the major health problems in the Caribbean.

• More than one in five of the adults in the

region have this condition.

• Hypertension often causes death by heart

attacks and strokes.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Hypertension may cause damage to the
smooth lining of the blood vessels, and
narrowing and increased hardening of the
arteries all over the body, especially in the
heart, brain and kidneys.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• As a result, the heart has to work harder and
eventually, as the muscles stretch too much or
get too thick, the enlarged heart muscle itself
is not supplied with enough blood.

• At this stage, the heart is no longer able to

function properly.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• As pressure increases in the brain, damage
occurs to the blood vessels and they may
rupture.

• This causes a stroke, with bleeding in the

brain, and the result may be paralysis of one
side of the body, loss of speech or even death.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• In the kidney, hypertension causes narrowing
and hardening of the arteries.

• This reduces the amount of fluid that can be

filtered.

• The result is that waste products build up in

the body and disease may result.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• In extreme cases, the kidneys may fail
completely leading to further complications.

• If hypertension is not controlled some of the

fat that normally circulates in our body is
deposited into the walls of the arteries.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Plaques (deposits of fatty materi­al)
accumulate in the arteries, like rust on the
inside of an iron pipe.

• This condition is called arteriosclerosis, or

hardening of the arteries.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• As blood pressure increases and with more fat
in the blood stream, plaque formation
increases.

• When the walls of the arteries become

thickened with fat there is less space for the
blood to flow through.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• If the arteries that supply blood to the heart
itself become clogged with plaques then the
blood flow to portions of the heart is reduced.

• When one of these vessels becomes

completely blocked, there is a temporary stop
in the blood supply to part of the heart.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• This results in that part of the heart muscle
becoming damaged and we say that a heart
attack has occurred.

• Many people have heart attacks without

knowing that they have taken place.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• But, once an attack has hap­pened the heart is
permanently damaged.

• People who have had a heart attack must be

careful not to over­exert their hearts.

• As we get older, even if our blood pressure

4 arts is
normal 4 bus 1

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Table1 Arteries, veins, and capillaries
Function Structure of wall Width of lumen Reasons for structure

Arteries carry blood thick, strong, varies, as strength and elasticity

away from the containing muscles elastic fibres needed to resist pulsing of
heart and elastic fibres stretch and blood as it is pumped by the
recoil hear

Capillaries supply all cells very thin, often only very narrow, no need for strong walls, as
with their one cell thick just wide most of force of blood has
requirements, enough for a been lost; thin walls and
and take away red narrow lumen bring blood
waste blood cell to into close contact with
products squeeze tissues
through

Veins return blood to quite thin, containing wide, contain no need for strong walls, as
heart far fewer muscles valves most of force of blood has
and elastic fibres been lost; wide lumen offers
than arteries less resistance to blood
flow; valves prevent
backflow

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Medical researchers believe that certain
factors make a person more likely to develop
hypertension.

• These factors include:

– Stress
• When people are excited or scared their blood
pressure normally rises.

4 tech
G. Rudolph HSB
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 • In some people, blood pressure fails to return to
normal immediately after the stressful conditions are
over.

• The blood pressure of people whose jobs are extremely

stressful may be kept at a high level for long periods of
time.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 – Inheritance
• People whose parents have high blood pressure are
more likely to develop hypertension.

– Diet
• There is good evidence that a salt rich diet is asso­ciated
with high blood pressure. Large amounts of fatty foods
may also lead to arteriosclerosis, and, therefore, to
hypertension.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 – Obesity
• All of the body's cells require substances car­ried to
them in the blood.

• Therefore, as body weight increases the circulatory

system also increases in size and the heart is made to
work harder to pump more blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 – Smoking
• The drug nicotine causes blood vessels to constrict and
as a result blood pressure rises. The heart also has to
work harder to pump increased volumes of blood
through damaged lungs.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• It is obvious from this list that good health
habits reduce the occurrence of hypertension.
Regular exercise (aerobics, jogging or running)
can also be beneficial.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Each organ has its own blood supply.
• Figs 11 and 12 illustrate the positions of the
main arteries and veins in the body.

• Each organ of the body, except the lungs, is

supplied with oxygenated blood from an
artery.

• Deoxygenated blood is taken away by a vein.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The artery and vein are named according to
the organ with which they are connected.

• For example, the blood vessels of the kidneys

are the renal artery and vein.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 • All arteries, other than the pulmonary artery,
branch from the aorta.

• All the veins, except the pulmonary veins, join

up to one of the two venae cavae.

• The liver has two blood vessels supplying it

with blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• The first is the hepatic artery, which supplies
oxygen.

• The second is the hepatic portal vein.

• This vein brings blood from the digestive

system so that the liver can process the food
which has been absorbed, before it travels to
other parts of the body.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• All the blood leaves the liver in the hepatic
vein.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Vena cava
from the head
Carotid Artery

Pulmonary
Pulmonary Vein
Artery

Aorta
Vena cava
from the body

Hepatic
Hepatic Vein Artery

Hepatic Mesenteric
Figure 11:
Portal Vein Artery Plan of the
main blood
RenalArtery vessels in
Renal Vein
the human
[Link]
body
Rudolph HSB
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 jugular vein
carotid artery
Subclavian vein
subclavian artery
vena cava from head
aorta

pulmonary veins pulmonary artery

vena cava from body

hepatic artery
Hepatic Vein
renal artery
hepatic portal vein tech1
mesenteric artery
renal vein

iliac vein iliac artery

Figure 12: The main arteries and veins in the human body
G. Rudolph HSB
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 Home work
1. Which blood vessels carry blood (a) away from, and (b) towards the
heart?
2. Why do arteries need strong walls?
3. Why do arteries have elastic walls?
4. What is the function of capillaries?
5. Why do veins have a large lumen?
6. How is blood kept moving in the large veins of the legs?
7. What is unusual about the blood supply to the liver?
8. What is hypertension?
9. What are plaques?
10. What factors can lead to hypertension?
11. What advice would you give an obese smoker who suffers from
hypertension?

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Blood consists of cells floating in
plasma.
• The liquid part of blood is called plasma.

• Floating in the plasma are cells.

• Most of these are red blood cells.

• A much smaller number are white blood cells.

G. Rudolph HSB
Arts 2
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• There are also small fragments formed from
special cells in the bone marrow, called
platelets (see Fig 13).

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Plasma is a complex solution
• Plasma is mostly water.

• Many substances are dissolved in it.

• Glucose, amino acids, salts, hormones, blood

proteins, and antibodies are all dissolved in the
plasma.

• Look at Table 2.
G. Rudolph HSB
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 Red blood cells carry oxygen

• Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow of some bones,
including the ribs, vertebrae and some limb bones.

• They are produced at a very fast rate - about 9 000 million per
hour!

• Red cells have to be made so quickly because they do not live

for very long.

• Each red cell only lives for about four months.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• One reason for this is that they do not have a
nucleus (see Fig 13).

• Red cells are red because they contain the

pigment haemoglobin.

• This carries oxygen.

• Haemoglobin is a protein, and contains iron.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• It is this iron that readily combines with
oxygen where the gas is in good supply.

• It just as readily gives it up where the oxygen

supply is low, as in active tissues.

• But haemoglobin will combine with carbon

monoxide in preference to oxygen.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• If this happens, oxygen can no longer be transported.

• This can cause quick collapse of humans.

• Recovery needs the administration of pure oxygen,

as well as carbon dioxide.

• The oxygen is to flush out the carbon monoxide, and

the carbon dioxide to stimulate breathing.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Many people die from carbon monoxide in car
fumes.

• Tobacco smoke also contains carbon

monoxide.

• Old red blood cells are broken down in the

liver, spleen and bone marrow.

G. Rudolph HSB
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• Some of the iron from the haemoglobin is
stored, and used for making new
haemoglobin.

• Some of it is turned into bile pigment and

excreted.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Table 2 Some of the main components of blood plasma

Substance Source Destination Notes

Water Absorbed in colon. All cells. Excess is removed by kidneys.

Plasma proteins, Fibrinogen made in the Remain in the Fibrinogen helps in blood clotting. Antibodies
e.g. fibrinogen, liver. Antibodies made by blood. kill bacteria.
antibodies lymphocytes.
Lipids including Absorbed in the ileum. To the liver, for Breakdown of fats yields energy. High
cholesterol and Also derived from fat breakdown. To cholesterol levels in the blood may increase
fatty acids reserves in the body. adipose tissue, for the chances of heart disease.
storage.
Carbohydrates e.g. Absorbed in the ileum. To all cells, for Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and
glucose Also produced by energy released stored in liver and muscles
glycogen breakdown in by respiration
the liver.
Excretory Produced by amino acid To kidneys for
substances, e.g. deamination in the liver. excretion.
urea
Absorbed in the ileum and To all cells Excess ions are excreted by the kidneys.
Mineral ions e.g. colon.
Na+, CI
Hormones. Secreted into the blood by To all parts of the Hormones only affect their own target
endocrine glands. body. organs. Hormones are broken down in the
liver, and they are also excreted by the
kidneys
Dissolved gases, Carbon dioxide is To the lungs for Most carbon dioxide is carried as
e.g. carbon dioxide released from all cells as hydrogencarbonate ions
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a waste product of excretion. (HCOp in the plasma.
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respiration
 White blood cells fight infection
• White cells are made in the bone marrow and
in the lymph nodes.

• White cells do have a nucleus, which is often

quite large and lobed (see Fig 13).

Tech 1
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• They can move around, like an Amoeba, and
can squeeze out through the walls of blood
capillaries into all parts of the body.

• Their function is to fight infection, and to clear

up any dead body cells.

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 Platelets help blood clot.
• Platelets are small fragments of cells, with no
nucleus.

• They are made in the red bone marrow, and

they are involved in blood clotting.

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 Figure 13: Blood cells two types of white cell

phagocyte cell which can

lymphocyte, with engulf bacteria, with lobed
large nucleus nucleus
doughnut-shaped red cell,
with no nucleus

platelets

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 Figure 14: Scanning electronmicrograph of red blood
cells

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 Table 3: Components of blood
Component Structure Functions
Plasma Water, containing Liquid medium in which cells and platelets can float
many substances in Transports C02 in solution
solution
Transports food materials in solution
Transports urea in solution
Transports hormones in solution
Transports heat
Transports substances needed for blood clotting
Transports antibodies
Red cells Biconcave discs, 1 Transport oxygen
with no nucleus, 2 Transport small amount of C0
containing
haemoglobin
White cells Variable shape, Engulf and destroy bacteria (phagocytosis)
with nucleus Make antibodies
Platelets Small particles, with 1 Help in blood clotting
no nucleus

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 Homework
1. List five components of plasma.
2. Where are red blood cells made?
3. What is unusual about red blood cells?
4. What is haemoglobin?
5. Why is carbon monoxide so dangerous to
humans?
6. Where are white blood cells made?
7. What are platelets?

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Figure 15: A light micrograph of human blood. You can
see several red cells, and also a white cell which is
taking in and digesting bacteria

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 Blood has many functions
• Blood has three main functions.

• These are:
– transport
– defense against disease,
– regulation of body temperature.

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 Many substances are transported by
blood
• Transport of oxygen
– In the lungs, oxygen diffuses [from the alveoli into the
blood.

– The doughnut shape of the red blood cells (see Fig 14)
increases the surface area for diffusion.

– In the blood, oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells,

where it combines with the haemoglobin (Hb) to form oxy­
hemoglobin (oxyHb).

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 – The blood is then taken to the heart in the
pulmonary veins and pumped out of the heart in
the aorta.

– Arteries branch from the aorta to supply all parts

of the body with oxygenated blood.

– When it reaches a tissue I which needs oxygen,

the oxyHb gives up its oxygen, to become Hb
again.

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 – Because capillaries are so narrow, the oxyHb in
the red blood cells is taken very close to the
tissues which need the oxygen.

– The oxygen only has a very short distance to

diffuse,

– OxyHb is bright red, whereas Hb is purplish-red.

– The blood in arteries is therefore a brighter red

colour than the blood in veins.

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• Transport of carbon dioxide
– Carbon dioxide is made by all the cells in the body
as they respire.

– The carbon dioxide diffuses through the walls of

the capillaries into the blood.

– Most of the carbon dioxide is carried by the blood

plasma in the form of hydrogen carbonate ions,
HCO¯3.

– A small amount is carried by Hb in the red cells.

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 – Blood containing carbon dioxide is returned to the
heart in the veins, and then to the lungs in the
pulmonary arteries.

– The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and is

passed out of the body on expiration.

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• Transport of food materials
– Digested food is absorbed in the ileum

– It includes amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol,

monosaccharides (such as glucose), water,
vitamins and minerals.

– These all dissolve in the plasma in the blood

capillaries in the villi.

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 – These capillaries join up to form the hepatic portal
vein.

– This takes the dissolved food to the liver.

– The liver processes the food and returns some of

it to the blood.

– The food is then carried, dissolved in the blood, to

all parts of the body.

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• Transport of urea
– Urea, a waste substance, is made in the liver.

– It dissolves in the blood plasma, and is carried to

the kidneys.

– The kidneys excrete it in the urine.

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• Transport of hormones
– Hormones are made in endocrine glands.

– The hormones dissolve in the blood plasma, and

are transported all over the body.

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• Transport of heat
– Some parts of the body, such as the muscles,
make a great deal of heat.

– The blood transports the heat to all parts of the

body.

– This helps to keep the rest of the body warm.

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 Blood defends the body
• The ways in which the blood defends the body
will be discussed during the lesson on man
and diseases.

• They include blood clotting, phagocytosis and

production of antibodies.

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 Blood helps to regulate temperature
• The capillaries in the skin help to keep your
body temperature constant at about 36.8 °C.

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 Homework
1. Why is blood in arteries a brighter red than
the blood in veins?
2. Which vessel transports digested food to the
liver?
3. How is urea transported?
4. Name two functions of blood other than
transport.

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 Lymph and tissue fluid

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 Tissue fluid is leaked plasma
• Capillaries leak!

• The cells in their walls do not fit together exactly, so

there are small gaps between them.

• Plasma can therefore leak out from the blood.

• White blood cells can also get through these gaps.

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• They are able to move, like an Amoeba, and
can squeeze through, out of the capillaries.

• Red blood cells cannot get out.

• They are too large and cannot change their

shape very much.

• So plasma and white cells are continually

leaking out of the blood capillaries.

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• The fluid formed in this way is called tissue
fluid.

• It surrounds all the cells in the body (see Fig

16).

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 The functions of tissue fluid
• Tissue fluid is very important.

• It supplies cells with all their requirements.

• These requirements, such as oxygen and food

materials, diffuse from the blood, through the tissue
fluid, to the cells.

• Waste products, such as carbon dioxide, diffuse in

the opposite direction.
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• The tissue fluid is the immediate environment
of every cell in your body.

• It is easier for a cell to carry out its functions

properly if its environment stays constant.

• For example, this means it should stay at the

same temperature, and at the same osmotic
concentration.

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• Several organs in the body work to keep the
composition and temperature of the blood
constant, and therefore the tissue fluid as
well.

• This process is called homeostasis.

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 16 Part of a capillary network, to show how tissue
fluid and lymph are formed
Red blood cell Plasma in blood
in blood capillary capillary Tissue fluid, which
Has leaked out of
Tissue
Gap in wall of Blood capillary
blood capillary

Lymph vessel

Fluid now called lymph,

Which has collected
Into lymphatic capillary
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 capillary bed

lymph is emptied Figure: 17

back into blood Relationship
between blood
circulation and
lymphatic circulation

lymph vessel
lymph is emptied
G. Rudolph HSB back into blood
lymph is emptied back into blood
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 Figure 18: The main lymph vessels and lymph nodes

lymph empties into

/ subclavian vein

thoracic duct

lymph vessels bringing

lymph from the villi
containing fats which
have been absorbed

lymph nodes

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 Lymph nodes contain white blood
cells
• On its way from the tissues to the subclavian vein,
lymph flows through several lymph nodes.

• Some of these are shown in Fig 18.

• Lymph nodes contain large numbers of white cells.

• Most bacteria or toxins in the lymph can be

destroyed by these cells.

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 Lymph is drained tissue fluid
• The plasma and white cells that leak out of the
blood capillaries must eventually be returned
to the blood.

• In the tissues, as well as blood capillaries, are

other small vessels.

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• They are lymphatic capillaries (see Fig 16).

• The tissue fluid slowly drains into them.

• The fluid is now called lymph.

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• The lymphatic capillaries gradually join up to
form larger lymphatic vessels (see Fig 17).

• These carry the lymph to the subclavian veins

which bring blood back from the arms (see Fig
18).

• Here the lymph enters the blood again.

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• The lymphatic system has no pump to make
the lymph flow.

• Lymph vessels do have valves in them,

however, to make sure that movement is only
in one direction.

• Lymph flows much more slowly than blood.

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 Lymph is drained tissue fluid
• The plasma and white cells that leak out of the blood
capillaries must eventually be returned to the blood.

• In the tissues, as well as blood capillaries, are other

small vessels.

• They are lymphatic capillaries (see Fig 16).

• The tissue fluid slowly drains into them. The fluid is

now called lymph.

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• The lymphatic capillaries gradually join up to
form larger lymphatic vessels (see Fig 17).

• These carry the lymph to the subclavian veins

which bring blood back from the arms (see Fig
18).

• Here the lymph enters the blood again.

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• The lymphatic system has no pump to make
the lymph flow.

• Lymph vessels do have valves in them,

however, to make sure that movement is only
in one direction.

• Lymph flows much more slowly than blood.

G. Rudolph HSB
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 Home work
1. What is tissue fluid?
2. Give two functions of tissue fluid.
3. What is lymph?
4. Why do lymphatic capillaries have valves in
them?
5. Name two places where lymph nodes are
found.
6. What happens inside lymph nodes?
G. Rudolph HSB
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 Organisms store food that is not
immediately needed
• Sometimes the food available for use in the cells is not
immediately needed.

• So it is stored for future use, in special sites.

• Food is often stored as polysaccharides, which are

carbohydrates. It may also be stored as lipids (oils and fats).

• In mammals, the polysaccharide is glycogen, and the lipid is

fat.

• In plants, the polysaccharide is starch, and the lipid is oil.

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• The food stores are reserves of energy.

• Lipids provide much more energy than

carbohydrates of equal mass.

• Polysaccharides and lipids are insoluble in

water.

• Therefore they do not affect the osmotic

concentration of the cell fluids.
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• When energy is needed, they are converted
by enzymes to soluble substances.

• These are then transported to where they are

needed.

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 In mammals, food reserves are found in the
liver, in muscle and beneath the skin
• Mammals store glycogen in the liver, and in
muscle.

• Both are centres of high metabolic activity.

• Glycogen is built up of glucose, which is

released for respiration as needed.

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• Fat is mostly stored beneath the skin.

• In cold countries, some mammals store extra,

fat for hibernation.

• Some aquatic mammals, for example, the

seal, have a thick layer of fat beneath the skin.

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• This is called blubber.

• It acts as an insulator.

• The water produced when fat is oxidised in

respiration, is very important for desert
animals.

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• An extreme case is the kangaroo rat, which
does not drink.

• It relies solely on the water from respiration.

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Vitamins and minerals are also stored
• The liver is perhaps the main storage organ in
animals.

• In addition to glycogen, it also stores the fat-

soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.

• Some fish liver oils are especially rich in

vitamins A and D.
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• The liver also stores the water-soluble
vitamins C and some of the B group, especially
nicotinic acid, B12, and folic acid. B12 and folic
acid are needed in the bone marrow for the
formation of the red blood cells.

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• The iron from broken-down red blood cells is also
stored in the liver.

• This is later used for making new red blood cells.

Potassium is also stored in the liver.

• The vessels of the liver, together with the hepatic

portal vein, also provide an emergency reservoir of
blood.

• This reservoir is not static. Blood is in continual

movement through it.

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 Homework
1. Why are polysaccharides and lipids useful storage
materials?
2. Why do you think cod liver oil is commonly
recommended for young children?
3. Name three different kinds of substances stored in
the liver.
4. Eskimos use a lot of blubber in their diet. Why?
5. Metabolic water is very important to desert
animals. Why?

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 Study Hard

G. Rudolph HSB
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