Module 1 : IoT-An Architectural

Overview
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Building an architecture
• Architecture refers to the description of the main conceptual elements, the actual elements of a target system, how
they relate to each other, and principles for the design of the architecture.
• The applied architecture is then the blueprint used to develop the actual system solution.

From a reference architecture to a system solution

IoT-An Architectural Overview
Building an architecture

Problem and Solution domain partitioning.

IoT-An Architectural Overview
Main design principles and needed capabilities
• The architecture relies on the separation of resources providing sensing and actuation from the actual devices, a set
of contextual and real world entity-centric services, and the users of the services.
• SENSEI further relies on an open-ended constellation of providers and users, and also provides a reference model
for different business roles.
• A number of design principles and guidelines are identified, and so is a set of requirements.
• Finally, the architecture itself contains a set of key functional capabilities.
• IoT-A refers to as the Architectural Reference Model (ARM).
• The vision of IoT-A is, via the ARM, to establish a means to achieve a high degree of interoperability between
different IoT solutions at the different system levels of communication, service, and information.
• IoT-A provides a set of different architectural views, establishes a proposed terminology and a set of Unified
Requirements.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Main design principles and needed capabilities

1. The overall design objective of IoT architecture shall be to target a horizontal system of real-world services that are
open, service-oriented, secure, and offer trust.
2. Design for reuse of deployed IoT resources across application domains.
3. Design for a set of support services that provide open service-oriented capabilities and can be used for application
development and execution.
4. Design for different abstraction levels that hide underlying complexities and heterogeneities.
5. Design for sensing and actors taking on different roles of providing and using services across different business
domains and value chains.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Main design principles and needed capabilities

1. Design for ensuring trust, security, and privacy.

2. Design for scalability, performance, and effectiveness.
3. Design for simplicity of management.
4. Design for different service delivery models.
5. Design for lifecycle support.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Building an architecture:
The IoT system's fundamental building parts include
sensors, processors, gateways, and applications. To create
a useful IoT system, each of these nodes must have
unique properties.

Fig1: Simplified block diagram of the basic building blocks of the IoT
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Sensors
● They make up the IoT devices' front end.
● Their primary function is to gather data from their environment (sensors) or to disseminate
data to their environment (actuators).
● To be easily recognized across a wide network, these must be uniquely recognizable devices
having a unique IP address
● They must be active, which means they must be able to gather data in real time. Depending
on the user's demands, these can either function independently (autonomous in nature) or
be modified to function independently (user-controlled).
● Gas sensors, water quality sensors, moisture sensors, and other types of sensors are
examples.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Processors

● The IoT system's brain is its processor. Their primary duty is to process the information
obtained by the sensors and separate the useful information from the vast amounts of raw
information gathered. In a single sentence, we may claim that it offers the data
intelligence.
● Most processors operate in real-time and are simple for programs to regulate. They are
also in charge of encrypting and decrypting data in order to secure the data.
● Because they have processors attached to them, embedded hardware devices,
microcontrollers, etc., are the ones that process the data.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Gateways
● Gateways are in charge of sending the processed data to the appropriate areas for proper
utilization.
● In other words, we can say that a gateway facilitates the communication of data between
two points. It gives the data network connectivity. Any IoT system must have network
connectivity in order to interact.
● Network gateways include LAN, WAN, PAN, etc.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Applications

● Another component of an IoT system is applications. Apps are necessary for the effective
use of all obtained data.
● These cloud-based applications are in charge of giving the obtained data an effective
meaning. Users control applications, which are used to deliver certain services.
● Applications include things like security systems, industrial control hubs, and apps for home
automation.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Applications

● Another component of an IoT system is applications. Apps are necessary for the effective
use of all obtained data.
● These cloud-based applications are in charge of giving the obtained data an effective
meaning. Users control applications, which are used to deliver certain services.
● Applications include things like security systems, industrial control hubs, and apps for home
automation.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Stages of IoT solutions architecture

The various phases of IoT architecture implementation in businesses are as
follows:
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Connected objects/devices
● The physical layer within the environment must be built as a first step towards IoT
architecture. The Internet of Things would not exist without "smart" or linked objects.
● On the perception layer, these are frequently wireless sensors or actuators.
● Sensors gather and process environmental data to make it useful for additional research.
● The change that the sensors register is measured by actuators.
● Wired or wireless connections can be made between sensors and actuators to accomplish
sensing and actuation. Sensors and actuators can be connected using Personal Area
Networks (PANs) and Local Area Networks (LANs).
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Internet gateway

● After properly completing step one, the next task is to set up an internet gateway.
● We need a way to convert analogue data that is being collected by the sensors and actuators
into digital data so that we can process it.
● The internet gateway is used to do this activity.
● Before being transferred to the cloud, raw data from the devices will be received at the
internet gateway stage and pre-processed.
● Analog data can be transformed into digital data using data acquisition systems.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Internet gateway

● After properly completing step one, the next task is to set up an internet gateway.
● We need a way to convert analogue data that is being collected by the sensors and actuators into digital
data so that we can process it.
● The internet gateway is used to do this activity.
● Before being transferred to the cloud, raw data from the devices will be received at the internet gateway
stage and pre-processed.
● Analog data can be transformed into digital data using data acquisition systems.
● It establishes connections with the sensors and actuators, collects all the data, and transforms it into digital
form so that the internet gateway may send it across the network.
● It is in charge of conversion and data aggregation.
● To improve performance and effectiveness, we can also add extra features like analytics and security.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Edge IT systems
● Pre-processing and improved data analytics are part of the third stage of an IoT architecture.
● Edge IT systems are essential in easing the burden on the main IT infrastructure due to the sizeable volume of
data collected by IoT systems and the ensuing bandwidth requirements.
● Machine learning and visualization techniques are used by edge IT systems to derive insights from gathered data.
● While visualization tools make the data more comprehensible, machine learning algorithms offer insights into the
data.
● The system's speed, as well as the LAN or routers' bandwidth, would suffer if data is sent directly to the server or
data center.
● The system's speed, as well as the LAN or routers' bandwidth, would suffer if data is sent directly to the server or data center.
● Analog data is produced very quickly and takes up a lot of storage space. As a result, it is always advised to convert data to
digital format.
● Only the necessary data is processed and communicated to data centers and servers because the majority of the data acquired
by sensors and actuators is not valuable to the enterprise.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
Data centers and cloud storage
● The data is delivered to the data centers and servers for final analysis and reporting once it has been
appropriately preprocessed, examined, and any gaps have been filled.
● The management services area includes data centers and cloud services, which often handle data using
analytics, device management, and security controls.
● Data can also be transferred to end-user applications like healthcare, retail, environment, emergency,
energy, etc. thanks to the cloud.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
• Standards Considerations
There are few considerations to make while creating the Internet of Things device:

1. Cost
2. Network
3. Features
4. User interface
5. Power
6. Size
7. Cloud
8. Interoperability
9. Security
IoT-An Architectural Overview
[Link]
IoT or "smart" products benefit producers and customers equally, although they are more expensive.
[Link]
The network technology you choose for your IoT product has concerns with gateways and routers as well as distance. Ethernet/Wi- Fi is
required if you need to connect to the Internet; ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Bluetooth are available if you are self-contained in a room or
building.
[Link]
Businesses may now add features to their products that were either impossible or unimaginable without an IoT-connected product. For
updates, maintenance, and new revenue opportunities, you can obtain direct access to the consumer with the help of these
capabilities.
[Link] interface
It matters how a user interacts with a product. On the product, are you intending to use buttons, LEDs, or a display? What web and app
interfaces will you offer as well?
[Link]
The choice of a power source should be among the first. All design choices must take power conservation into account if the item will
be battery-powered. Many networking technologies won't operate well on batteries. Power selection is also influenced by
IoT-An Architectural Overview
[Link]

Size does matter. Think about how the size of the device will be affected by the network. Certain networks'
requirements for connectors and antennae will increase the size.

7. Interoperability

The ability of different IoT devices, platforms, or systems (made by different manufacturers) to work together
and understand each other.

8. Security

You must incorporate as many layers of security as you can because security is starting to become a serious
concern. The bare minimum is SSL and a password.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
 IoT-An Architectural Overview
• What is M2M in IoT?
• In IoT, M2M describes how machines (e.g., sensors, devices, and systems) communicate directly with each other
over a network. Unlike traditional systems where human input is often needed, M2M allows IoT devices to gather,
exchange, and process information autonomously, leading to faster and more reliable operations.
• Key Features of M2M in IoT
• Automated Communication
M2M systems use sensors, actuators, and communication modules to exchange information automatically over
wired or wireless networks.
• Real-Time Data Exchange
M2M enables devices to transmit and receive data in real time, which is essential for applications like remote
monitoring and control.
• Independent Operation
Once configured, M2M devices can operate and communicate autonomously, reducing the need for manual
oversight.
• Interoperability
M2M leverages standardized communication protocols (e.g., MQTT, CoAP, HTTP) to ensure compatibility
between diverse devices. Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, Constrained Application Protocol
 IoT-An Architectural Overview
• How M2M Works
• Data Collection: Devices equipped with sensors collect data, such as temperature, pressure, or location.
• Transmission: Data is transmitted to another device or system via communication networks (e.g., cellular, Wi-Fi,
LPWAN).
• Processing: The receiving device or system processes the data to perform specific tasks, such as sending alerts,
adjusting settings, or triggering further actions.
• Feedback Loop: Processed data can also be sent back to the originating device to refine operations.
• M2M Communication in IoT
• M2M communication is the process that allows IoT devices to interact, share data, and execute tasks. This
communication can occur over various wired or wireless networks, such as:
• Cellular Networks: Using 4G, 5G, or LPWAN for remote M2M communication.
• Wi-Fi: For local, high-bandwidth M2M connections.
• Bluetooth/Zigbee: For low-power, short-range communication.
• LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network): For long-range communication with minimal power consumption (e.g.,
LoRa, NB-IoT).
 IoT-An Architectural Overview
• Types of M2M Communication
• Device-to-Device: Direct communication between machines, such as two sensors transmitting data to each other.
• Device-to-Gateway: Devices send data to a local gateway, which processes and forwards it to cloud services or
other devices.
• Device-to-Cloud: Devices directly communicate with cloud platforms for centralized processing and storage
• Applications of M2M in IoT
• M2M enables IoT solutions across diverse industries, including:
• Smart Homes
• M2M allows devices like smart thermostats, security cameras, and lighting systems to communicate and create a cohesive
smart home experience.
• Industrial IoT (IIoT)
• Machines on factory floors use M2M to monitor equipment, predict maintenance, and optimize production in real-time.
• Healthcare
• Medical devices, such as remote patient monitoring systems, use M2M to send real-time health data to healthcare providers.
• Agriculture
• M2M in IoT supports precision farming through sensors that monitor soil moisture, weather conditions, and crop health.
• Transportation and Fleet Management
• Vehicles equipped with GPS and IoT devices use M2M communication for real-time tracking, route optimization, and fuel
management.
 IoT-An Architectural Overview

• M2M vs. IoT

• While M2M is often associated with IoT, there are distinctions between the two:

• M2M focuses on device-to-device communication.

• IoT expands the concept to include cloud integration, advanced analytics, and user interfaces, making it more
comprehensive.

• M2M is a cornerstone of IoT, enabling seamless communication between devices and systems.

• Its architecture, communication methods, and applications lay the foundation for the connected world we live in
today.

• From smart homes to industrial automation, M2M enhances efficiency, scalability, and real-time decision-making,
driving innovation across industries.

• As IoT continues to evolve, M2M will remain a critical enabler of intelligent and automated solutions.
IoT-An Architectural Overview
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Devices and gateways

Introduction
• There is a growing market for small-scale embedded processing such as 8-, 16-, and 32- bit microcontrollers with
on-chip RAM and flash memory, I/O capabilities, and networking interfaces such as IEEE 802.15.4 that are
integrated on tiny System-on-aChip (SoC) solutions.
• Such devices enable very constrained devices with a small footprint of a few mm2 and with a very low power
consumption in the milli- to micro-Watt range, but which are capable of hosting an entire Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) stack, including a small web server.
• A device is a hardware unit that can sense aspects of it’s environment and/or actuate, i.e. perform tasks in its
environment
IoT-An Architectural Overview

A device can be characterized as having several properties, including:

• Microcontroller: 8-, 16-, or 32-bit working memory and storage.

• Power Source: Fixed, battery, energy harvesting, or hybrid.

• Sensors and Actuators: Onboard sensors and actuators, or circuitry that allows them to be connected, sampled,
conditioned, and controlled.

• Communication: Cellular, wireless, or wired for LAN and WAN communication.

• Operating System (OS): Main-loop, event-based, real-time, or full featured OS.

• Applications: Simple sensor sampling or more advanced applications.

• User Interface: Display, buttons, or other functions for user interaction.

• Device Management (DM): Provisioning, firmware, bootstrapping, and monitoring.

• Execution Environment (EE): Application lifecycle management and Application Programming Interface (API)
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Device types
Group devices into two categories

• Basic Devices: Devices that only provide the basic services of sensor readings and/or actuation tasks, and in some
cases limited support for user interaction.
• LAN communication is supported via wired or wireless technology, thus a gateway is needed to provide the WAN
connection.
• Advanced Devices: In this case the devices also host the application logic and a WAN connection.
• They may also feature device management and an execution environment for hosting multiple applications.
Gateway devices are most likely to fall into this category.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Deployment scenarios for devices

Example deployment scenarios for basic devices include:

• • Home Alarms: Such devices typically include motion detectors, magnetic sensors, and smoke detectors.
• A central unit takes care of the application logic that calls security and sounds an alarm if a sensor is activated when
the alarm is armed.
• The central unit also handles the WAN connection towards the alarm central.
• These systems are currently often based on proprietary radio protocols.
• • Smart Meters: The meters are installed in the households and measure consumption of, for example, electricity
and gas.
• A concentrator gateway collects data from the meters, performs aggregation, and periodically transmits the
aggregated data to an application server over a cellular connection.
• By using a capillary network technology it’s possible to extend the range of the concentrator gateway by allowing
meters in the periphery to use other meters as extenders, and interface with handheld devices on the Home Area
Network side.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Deployment scenarios for devices

Building Automation Systems (BASs): Such devices include thermostats, fans, motion detectors, and boilers, which are
controlled by local facilities, but can also be remotely operated.
• Standalone Smart Thermostats: These use Wi-Fi to communicate with web services. Examples for advanced devices,
meanwhile, include:
• Onboard units in cars that perform remote monitoring and configuration over a cellular connection.
• Robots and autonomous vehicles such as unmanned aerial vehicles that can work both autonomously or by remote
control using a cellular connection.
• Video cameras for remote monitoring over 3G and LTE.
• Oil well monitoring and collection of data points from remote devices.
• Connected printers that can be upgraded and serviced remotely.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Gateways
• A gateway serves as a translator between different protocols, e.g. between IEEE 802.15.4 or IEEE 802.11, to
Ethernet or cellular.
• There are many different types of gateways, which can work on different levels in the protocol layers.
• A gateway refers to a device that performs translation of the physical and link layer, but application layer gateways
(ALGs) are also common.
• Some examples of ALGs include the ZigBee Gateway Device which translates from ZigBee to SOAP and IP, or
gateways that translate from Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) to HyperText Transfer
Protocol/Representational State Transfer (HTTP/REST).
• Tthe gateway device is also used for many other tasks, such as data management, device management, and local
applications.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Gateways
• Gateway provides a bridge between different communication technologies which means we can say that a Gateway
acts as a medium to open up connections between the cloud and controller(sensors/devices) in
Internet of Things (IoT).
• With the help of gateways, it is possible to establish device-to-device or device-to-cloud communication.
• A gateway can be a typical hardware device or software program. It enables a connection between the sensor
network and the Internet along with enabling IoT communication.
• it also performs many other tasks such as this IoT gateway performs protocol translation, aggregating all data, local
processing, and filtering of data before sending it to the cloud.
• locally storing data and autonomously controlling devices based on some inputted data, providing additional device
security.
• The below figure shows how IoT Gateways establish communication between sensors and the cloud (Data System):
IoT-An Architectural Overview

•IoT devices are energy constrained, typically powered by batteries, so direct communication with the
Gateways
cloud is not power-efficient.
•To save power, IoT devices first communicate with a Gateway using short-range wireless
technologies such as:
•ZigBee
•Bluetooth
•Z-Wave
•Alternatively, they may use long-range wireless methods like:
•Wi-Fi
•Cellular networks
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Key functionalities of IoT Gateway :

• Establishing communication bridge
• Provides additional security.
• Performs data aggregation.
• Pre processing and filtering of data.
• Provides local storage as a cache/ buffer.
• Data computing at edge level.
• Ability to manage entire device.
• Device diagnostics.
• Adding more functional capability.
• Verifying protocols.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Device management
Device management (DM) is an essential part of the IoT and provides efficient means to perform many of the
management tasks for devices:
• Provisioning: Initialization (or activation) of devices in regards to configuration and features to be enabled.
• Device Configuration: Management of device settings and parameters.
• Software Upgrades: Installation of firmware, system software, and applications on the device.
• Fault Management: Enables error reporting and access to device status.

• Advanced devices
An advanced device are the following:
• A powerful CPU or microcontroller with enough memory and storage to host advanced applications, such as a printer
offering functions for copying, faxing, printing, and remote management.
• A more advanced user interface with, for example, display and advanced user input in the form of a keypad or touch
screen.
• Video or other high bandwidth functions.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

A network is created when two or more computing devices exchange data or information.

 The ability to exchange pieces of information using telecommunications technologies has changed the world

 Devices are known as “nodes” of the network, and they communicate over “links.”

 In modern computing, nodes range from personal computers, servers, and dedicated packet switching hardware, to

smart phones, games consoles, television sets and, increasingly, heterogeneous devices that are generally characterized by

limited resources and functionalities.

 Limitations typically include computation, energy, memory, communication (range, bandwidth, reliability, etc.) and

application specificity (e.g. specific sensors, actuators, tasks), etc. Such devices are typically dedicated to specific tasks,

such as sensing, monitoring, and control.

 Network links rely upon a physical medium, such as electrical wires, air, and optical fibers, over which data can be sent

from one network node to the next.

 A selected physical medium determines a number of technical and economic considerations.

IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Indirect communication in a network requires routing through intermediate nodes (e.g., A → B →

C).
• Node B's role:Must communicate with both A and C.
• Must advertise itself as a relay or [Link] node needs a unique identifier; in modern
systems, this is done via IP addresses and routing tables.
• Nodes that don't have direct links need cooperating nodes to connect them.
• Application-specific networking needs:
• Video streaming: needs high bandwidth.
• Intrusion detection: needs low bandwidth but high reliability.
• Node A: limited wireless communication capability.
• Node B: acts as a bridge between constrained wireless nodes (like A) and the Internet/server
(Node C), possibly via Ethernet or RESTful web services.
• Node B may support a large sub-network (A1…An) of constrained sensor devices.
• These sensors communicate over single or multi-hop wireless connections to Node B
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Difference between LAN and WAN

IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data management
In the era of M2M, where billions of devices interact and generate data at exponential growth rates, data
management is of critical importance as it sets the basis upon which any other processes can rely and operate

 Some of the key characteristics of M2M data include:

• Big Data: Huge amounts of data are generated, capturing detailed aspects of the processes where devices
are involved.

• Heterogeneous Data: The data is produced by a huge variety of devices and is itself highly heterogeneous,
differing on sampling rate, quality of captured values, etc.

• Real-World Data: The overwhelming majority of the M2M data relates to real-world processes and is
dependent on the environment they interact with.

• Real-Time Data: M2M data is generated in real-time and overwhelmingly can be communicated also in a
very timely manner.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data management
• Temporal Data: The overwhelming majority of M2M data is of temporal nature, measuring the environment over
time.

• • Spatial Data: Increasingly, the data generated by M2M interactions are not only captured by mobile devices, but also
coupled to interactions in specific locations, and their assessment may dynamically vary depending on the location.

• • Polymorphic Data: The data acquired and used by M2M processes may be complex and involve various data, which
can also obtain different meanings depending on the semantics applied and the process they participate in.

• • Proprietary Data: Up to now, due to monolithic application development, a significant amount of M2M data is
stored and captured in proprietary formats. However, increasingly due to the interactions with heterogeneous devices
and stakeholders, open approaches for data storage and exchange are used.

• • Security and Privacy Data Aspects: Due to the detailed capturing of interactions by M2M, analysis of the obtained
data has a high risk of leaking private information and usage patterns, as well as compromising security.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Managing M2M data

• In Figure 5.5, we see a number of data processing network points between the machine and the
enterprise that act on the datastream (or simply forwarding it) based on their end-application
needs and existing context.
• Dealing with M2M data may be decomposed into several stages.
• Additionally, the degree of focus in each stage heavily depends on the actual usage requirements
put upon the data as well as the infrastructure.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data generation
• Data generation is the first stage within which data is generated actively or passively from the
device, system, or as a result of its interactions.

• The sampling of data generation depends on the device and its capabilities as well as potentially
the application needs.

• Usually default behaviors for data generation exist, which are usually further configurable to
strike a good benefit between involved costs, e.g. frequency of data collection vs. energy used in
the case of WSNs, etc
IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data acquisition
• Data acquisition deals with the collection of data (actively or passively) from the device, system,
or as a result of its interactions.
• The data acquisition systems usually communicate with distributed devices over wired or
wireless links to acquire the needed data, and need to respect security, protocol, and application
requirements.
• The nature of acquisition varies, e.g. it could be continuous monitoring, interval-poll, event-
based, etc.
• The frequency of data acquisition overwhelmingly depends on, or is customized by, the
application requirements (or their common denominator).
• The data acquired at this stage (for non-closed local control loops) may also differ from the data
actually generated.
• In simple scenarios, due to customized filters deployed at the device, a fraction of the generated
data may be communicated.
• Data aggregation and even on-device computation of the data may result in communication of
key performance indicators of interest to the application.
IoT-An Architectural Overview

Here are a few key bullet points summarizing the important aspects:
•Data validation is crucial to ensure correctness and relevance in the operating context.
•Validation is based on rules, semantic annotations, or logical checks.
•Data can be corrupted, altered, or misinterpreted, either intentionally or unintentionally.
•Business decisions rely on accurate and valid data.
•Common validation techniques include:
•Range limits, uniqueness checks, logic rules, timestamp accuracy
•Semantics help interpret data correctly based on its contextual meaning.
•Fallback mechanisms include:
•Re-requesting data
•Attempting data repair if validation fails
•Invalid or tampered data poses serious security risks, including:
•Privilege escalation
•Denial of service
•Database corruption
•Attacks on other connected services
Let me know if you want a slide layout or teaching-friendly version.
 IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data storage

• The data generated by M2M interactions is what is commonly referred to as “Big Data.”

• Machines generate an incredible amount of information that is captured and needs to be stored for further
processing.

• As this is proving challenging due to the size of information, a balance between its business usage vs. storage
needs to be considered; that is, only the fraction of the data relevant to a business need may be stored for
future reference.

• However, one has to carefully consider what the value of such data is to business not only in current processes,
but also potentially other directions that may be followed in the future by the company as different assessments
of the same data may provide other, hidden competitive advantages in the future.

• Due to the massive amounts of M2M data, as well as their envisioned processing (e.g. searching), specialized
technologies such as massively parallel processing DBs, distributed file systems, cloud computing platforms, etc.
are needed.
 IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data processing
• Data processing enables working with the data that is either at rest (already stored) or is in-motion (e.g.
stream data).

• The scope of this processing is to operate on the data at a low level and “enhance” them for future needs.

• Typical examples include data adjustment during which it might be necessary to normalize data, introduce an
estimate for a value that is missing, re-order incoming data by adjusting timestamps, etc.

• Similarly, aggregation of data or general calculation functions may be operated on two or more data streams
and mathematical functions applied on their composition.

• Another example is the transformation of incoming data; for example, a stream can be converted on the fly
(e.g. temperature values are converted from _F to _C), or repackaged in another data model, etc. Missing or
invalid data that is needed for the specific time-slot may be forecasted and used until, in a future interaction,
the actual data comes into the system.
 IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data remanence

• Even if the data is erased or removed, residues may still remain in electronic media, and may be easily recovered by third
parties _ often referred to as data remanence.

• Several techniques have been developed to deal with this, such as overwriting, degaussing, encryption, and physical
destruction.

• For M2M, not only the DBs where the M2M data is collected, but also the points of action, which generate the data, or the
individual nodes in between, which may cache it.

• At the current technology pace, those buffers (e.g. on device) are expected to be less at risk since their limited

size means that after a specific time has elapsed, new data will occupy that space; hence, the window of

opportunity is rather small.

• In addition, for large-scale infrastructures the cost of potentially acquiring “deleted” data may be large; hence,

their hubs or collection end-points, such as the DBs who have such low cost, may be more at risk.
 IoT-An Architectural Overview

• Data analysis
• Data available in the repositories can be subjected to analysis with the aim to obtain the information they
encapsulate and use it for supporting decision-making processes.

• The analysis of data at this stage heavily depends on the domain and the context of the data.

• For instance, business intelligence tools process the data with a focus on the aggregation and key
performance indicator assessment.

• Data mining focuses on discovering knowledge, usually in conjunction with predictive goals.

• Statistics can also be used on the data to assess them quantitatively (descriptive statistics), find their main
characteristics (exploratory data analysis), confirm a specific hypothesis (confirmatory data analysis),
discover knowledge (data mining), and for machine learning, etc.

• This stage is the basis for any sophisticated applications that take advantage of the information hidden
directly or indirectly on the data.