IGCSE BIOLOGY

SECTION 2 LESSON 3
 Content
Section 2
a) Levels of organisation
b) Cell structure
Structures c) Biological molecules
and d) Movement of substances
functions into and out of cells
in living e) Nutrition
organisms f) Respiration
g) Gas exchange
h) Transport
i) Excretion
j) Coordination and
response
 Content
Flowering plants
2.15 describe the process of photosynthesis
Lesson 2 and understand its importance in the
conversion of light energy to chemical energy
2.16 write the word equation and the balanced
chemical symbol equation for photosynthesis
e) Nutrition 2.17 understand how varying carbon dioxide
concentration, light intensity and temperature
affect the rate of photosynthesis
2.18 describe the structure of a leaf and
explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis
2.19 understand that plants require mineral
ions for growth and that magnesium ions are
needed for chlorophyll and nitrate ions are
needed for amino acids
2.20 describe experiments to investigate
photosynthesis, showing the evolution of
oxygen from a water plant, the production of
starch and the requirements of light, carbon
dioxide and chlorophyll
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 3 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Types of nutrition
AUTOTROPHS –organisms that can
produce complex organic
compounds from simple inorganic
molecules.
They are the PRODUCERS in a food
chain.

HETEROTROPHS – organisms that

cannot produce their own food, but
acquire complex organic molecules
by consuming plants or other
animals.
 Biological molecules

Our diet
needs to
contain
sufficient and
balanced
quantities of
carbohydrate
s, proteins
and lipids.
 Biological molecules
carbohydrates
Different foods contain Sugar gives us
different kinds of sugar.
Eg fruit contains energy, so we
Sugar fructose or glucose. call it an energy
Lactose is in milk. Table
sugar is sucrose. food.

Starch

Cellulose
 Biological molecules
carbohydrates
Different foods contain Sugar gives us
different kinds of sugar.
Eg fruit contains energy, so we
Sugar fructose or glucose. call it an energy
Lactose is in milk. Table
sugar is sucrose. food.
Starch is found Starch is a storage
particularly in molecule, but it
Starch bread, potatoes does provide us
with energy.
and cereals.

Cellulose
 Biological molecules
carbohydrates
Different foods contain Sugar gives us
different kinds of sugar.
Eg fruit contains energy, so we
Sugar fructose or glucose. call it an energy
Lactose is in milk. Table
sugar is sucrose. food.
Starch is found Starch is a storage
particularly in molecule, but it
Starch bread, potatoes does provide us
with energy.
and cereals.
Cellulose is It is a structural
found in plant molecule, and
Cellulose cell walls supports the
plant cell.
 Biological molecules
Fats

Fats also contain C, H and O, but relatively

less O. Fats occur in both plant and animal
foods.
Fats – solid at room temperatures.
Oils - liquid at room temperatures.
 Biological molecules
Fats

Fats also contain C, H and O, but relatively

less O. Fats occur in both plant and animal
foods.
Fats – solid at room temperatures.
Oils - liquid at room temperatures.

Fats also give us energy. They also provide

insulation in humans and other mammals,
and are energy stores.
 Biological molecules
Proteins

Proteins contain C, H and O, and also some

nitrogen (N) and a little suplhur (S).
Proteins are found in milk, eggs, meat and
fish.
 Biological molecules
Proteins

Proteins contain C, H and O, and also some

nitrogen (N) and a little suplhur (S).
Proteins are found in milk, eggs, meat and
fish.
Proteins are needed
for growth and body-
building (muscles and
skin), and they are
also used to make
enzymes.
 Components of our diet
Minerals: contain certain elements essential
for the proper functioning of our bodies.
 Components of our diet
Minerals: contain certain elements essential
for the proper functioning of our bodies.

Needed for Occurs in Deficiency

Calciu hardening
our bones
foods such
as milk,
results in
rickets
m and teeth. cheese and
fish
 Rickets

Rickets is a softening of
bones in children due to
deficiency or impaired
metabolism of vitamin D,
magnesium, phosphorus or
calcium, potentially leading
to fractures and deformity.
Rickets is among the most
frequent childhood diseases
in many developing
countries.
 Components of our diet
Minerals: contain certain elements essential
for the proper functioning of our bodies.

Needed for Occurs in Deficiency

Calciu hardening
our bones
foods such
as milk,
results in
rickets
m and teeth. cheese and
fish
Present in Occurs in a Deficiency
haemoglobi number of results in
n, the red foods, anaemia
Iron pigment in especially
blood used liver and
to carry kidneys
oxygen
 Anaemia

Anaemia is a decrease
in the number of red
blood cells in the blood,
meaning that less
oxygen can be carried
by the blood to various
organs and tissues,.
The main symptoms are
tiredness and lethargy.
 Components of our diet
Vitamins: a collection of organic substances
needed in small quantities in the body. Their
overall function is to help control the
chemical reactions taking place in the body.
 Components of our diet
Vitamins: a collection of organic substances
needed in small quantities in the body. Their
overall function is to help control the
chemical reactions taking place in the body.

Important for Found in fish Deficiency

Vitamin our eyes –
helps protect
liver oil, and
carrots.
makes it
difficult to
A their surfaces see in dim
light
 Components of our diet
Vitamins: a collection of organic substances
needed in small quantities in the body. Their
overall function is to help control the
chemical reactions taking place in the body.

Important for Found in fish Deficiency

Vitamin our eyes –
helps protect
liver oil, and
carrots.
makes it
difficult to
A their surfaces see in dim
light
Needed for Found in Deficiency
strong gums citrus fruits, results in
Vitamin green scurvy
vegetables
C and
blackcurrants
 Scurvy

Scurvy can result in

swollen gums, severe
pain in joints, shortness
of breath, and blurred
vision.
 Components of our diet
Vitamins: a collection of organic substances
needed in small quantities in the body. Their
overall function is to help control the
chemical reactions taking place in the body.

Necessary for Occurs in fish Deficiency

bones to take liver oil, and results in
Vitamin up calcium
salts
can be made
in the skin
rickets.

D provided
sunlight is
present.
 Components of our diet
Fibre is necessary for a healthy balanced
diet, but the body can’t absorb it. It helps
our digestive system to process food and
absorb nutrients. It helps your bowel to pass
food by making stools soft and bulky. It
helps prevent constipation.
Fibre is found in foods such as brown rice,
oats, wholegrain breads and cereals.
 Components of our diet
Water makes up more
than two-thirds of the
weight of the human
body. It serves as a
lubricant, helps
regulate body
temperature,
prevents and relieves
constipation. Without
enough water we can
become dehydrated.
The human digestive system
(also known as the alimentary canal)

From mouth to anus

The human digestive system
Can you name the 2 different ways we
breakdown food in our bodies?
1. Mechanical Digestion
– -teeth Mechanical (physical)
• Chew
• Tear
• Grind
• Mash
• Mix
2. Chemical Digestion
-enzymes
-bile
-stomach acid
 Digestion
• Types
– Mechanical (physical)
• Chew
• Tear
• Grind
• Mash
• Mix
– Chemical
• Enzymatic reactions to improve digestion of
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Lipids
 1. Parts of The Alimentary Canal

The alimentary canal (or gut) is the tube

within the body through which food passes
and is processed in various ways
 mout
h

salivary glands

oesophagu
s

liver

stomach
pancreas
large intestine

small intestine

anus
The human digestive system

In digestion,
large insoluble
molecules are
broken down into
smaller soluble
particles that can
be absorbed into
the bloodstream.
The human digestive system

Mouth – mechanical
chewing of the food.
Salivary glands
produce the enzyme
amylase which
begins breaking
down
polysaccharides into
simpler sugars.
The human digestive system

Oesophagus (also
known as the gullet).
Passes food down
from the mouth to
the stomach by a
process known as
peristalsis.
 Peristalsis

Rings of muscle
around the
oesophagus
effectively
‘squeeze’ food
towards the
stomach, as you
would with
toothpaste in a
tube.
The human digestive system

Stomach – more
mechanical
digestion happens
here. The stomach
produces the
enzyme protease,
and also
hydrochloric acid
which kills bacteria,
and this acid also
provides the ideal
conditions for
protease.
The human digestive system

Pancreas – produces
many enzymes,
including amylase,
protease and lipase.
The human digestive system

Small intestine – can

be over six metres
long. Digested food
is absorbed here
into the blood
stream. The surface
area of the small
intestine is greatly
increased by the
presence of small,
finger-like
projections called
villi (villus).
Villi
The human digestive system

Large intestine – as
the fibre and other
undigested material
passes along the
large intestine,
water is absorbed
from it, so it
becomes more solid.
This solid matter
then passes on to
the rectum where it
is stored as faeces.
 The human digestive system

The Liver – produces

a substance known
as bile, which is
stored in the gall
bladder before it is
released into the
small intestine.

Bile has 2 functions:

 The human digestive system

The Liver – produces

a substance known
as bile, which is
stored in the gall
bladder before it is
released into the
small intestine.

Bile has 2 functions:

1. It neutralises the acid
from the stomach,
producing more alkaline
conditions.
 The human digestive system

The Liver – produces

a substance known
as bile, which is
stored in the gall
bladder before it is
released into the
small intestine.

Bile has 2 functions:

2. It emulsifies fats – i.e. it
breaks large drops of fat
into small droplets to
increase their surface
area, so enzymes can work
faster.
Pause time!
 Definitions
Ingestion

Digestion

Absorption

Assimilation

Egestion
 Definitions
This is the process of taking in food
Ingestion substances through the mouth.

Digestion

Absorption

Assimilation

Egestion
 Definitions
This is the process of taking in food
Ingestion substances through the mouth.

This is the mechanical and chemical

Digestion breakdown of food into smaller, more
soluble, components.

Absorption

Assimilation

Egestion
 Definitions
This is the process of taking in food
Ingestion substances through the mouth.

This is the mechanical and chemical

Digestion breakdown of food into smaller, more
soluble, components.
This is the process of taking soluble
food through the wall of the small
Absorption intestine by diffusion into the blood
stream.

Assimilation

Egestion
 Definitions
This is the process of taking in food
Ingestion substances through the mouth.

This is the mechanical and chemical

Digestion breakdown of food into smaller, more
soluble, components.
This is the process of taking soluble
food through the wall of the small
Absorption intestine by diffusion into the blood
stream.
This is the process whereby absorbed
food is altered chemically by the liver
Assimilation or chemical substances before being
utilised by the cells of the body.

Egestion
 Definitions
This is the process of taking in food
Ingestion substances through the mouth.
This is the mechanical and chemical
Digestion breakdown of food into smaller, more
soluble, components.
This is the process of taking soluble
food through the wall of the small
Absorption intestine by diffusion into the blood
stream.
This is the process whereby absorbed
food is altered chemically by the liver
Assimilation or chemical substances before being
utilised by the cells of the body.
This is the process where solid
Egestion undigested food material is removed
from the digestive system via the anus.
 Mouth
• Teeth mechanically • Epiglottis is a flap-like
break down food into structure at the back of
small pieces. Tongue the throat that closes
mixes food with saliva over the trachea
(contains amylase, preventing food from
which helps break down entering it. It is located
starch). in the Pharynx.
B. Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion:
2. Mastication:.
3. Propulsion
– Deglutition: swallowing
– Peristalsis:
– Mass movements
– chyme

24-53
I. Functions of Saliva
– 1. Prevents bacterial
infection
– 2. Lubrication
– 3. Contains salivary
amylase that breaks
down starch into
disaccharides
– 4. Helps to form
bolus for deglutition
– 5. Parasympathetic
input causes salivary
production
– 6. Sympathetic
stimulation leads to
thick mucoid saliva

24-54
I. Swallowing (Deglutition)-three phases
– 1. Voluntary: bolus of food moved by tongue from
oral cavity to pharynx.
– 2. Pharyngeal: reflex.
– a. Controlled by swallowing center in medulla
oblongata.
– b. Soft palate elevates, upper esophageal sphincter
relaxes,
– c. elevated pharynx opens the esophagus,
– d. food pushed into esophagus by pharyngeal
constrictors’ successive contraction from superior to
inferior.
– e. Epiglottis is tipped posteriorly due to pressure of
the bolus,
– f. larynx elevated to prevent food from passing into
larynx.
– 3. Esophageal: reflex. Stretching of esophagus causes
enteric NS to initiate peristalsis of muscles in the
esophagus. 24-55
3. Secretions of the Stomach
• Chyme: ingested food plus stomach secretions
• Mucus:
– Viscous and alkaline
– Protects from acidic chyme and enzyme pepsin
• HCl: parietal cells
– Kills bacteria
– Stops carbohydrate digestion by inactivating salivary amylase
– Denatures proteins
– Helps convert pepsinogen to pepsin
• Pepsinogen: packaged in zymogen granules released by exocytosis.
Pepsin catalyzes breaking of covalent bonds in proteins

24-56
H. Functions of the Liver
• 1. Bile production: 600-
1000 mL/day. Bile salts
(bilirubin), cholesterol,
fats, fat-soluble
hormones, lecithin
– Neutralizes and
dilutes stomach acid
– Bile salts emulsify
fats. Most are
reabsorbed in the
ileum.
– Secretin (from the
duodenum)
stimulates bile
secretions, increasing
water and
bicarbonate ion
content of the bile
• 2. Storage
– Glycogen, fat,
vitamins, copper and
iron. Hepatic portal
blood comes to liver 24-57
from small intestine.
• 3. Nutrient interconversion
– Amino acids to energy producing compounds
– Hydroxylation of vitamin D. Vitamin D then travels to
kidney where it is hydroxylated again into its active
form-promotes bone growth and absorption of calcium
• 4. Detoxification
– Hepatocytes remove ammonia and convert to urea
• 5. Phagocytosis
– Kupffer cells phagocytize worn-out and dying red and
white blood cells, some bacteria
• 6. Synthesis
– Albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, clotting
factors

24-58
X. Pancreas
• A. Pancreas both
endocrine and exocrine
• B. Endocrine: pancreatic
islets or Islets of
Langerhans.
• C. Exocrine: groups acini
(grape-like cluster) form
lobules separated by septa.
• D. Aqueous. Bicarbonate
lowers pH inhibiting pepsin
and providing proper pH
for enzymes
• E. Enzymatic portion:
– Trypsinogen
– Chymotrypsinogen
– Procarboxypeptidase
– Pancreatic amylase
– Pancreatic lipases
– Deoxyribonucleases
and ribonucleases
24-59
XI. Large Intestine

• A. Extends from
ileocecal junction to
anus
• B. Consists of cecum,
colon, rectum, anal
canal
• C. Movements sluggish
(18-24 hours); chyme
converted to feces.
• D. Absorption of water
and salts, secretion of
mucus, extensive action
of microorganisms.
• E. 1500 mL chyme
enter the cecum, 90%
of volume reabsorbed
yielding 80-150 mL of
feces

24-60
XII. Digestion and absorption
A. Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide vs.
disaccharide vs.
polysaccharide
2. Carbohydrate
digestion begins in the
mouth-salivary
amylase
3. Nothing occurs in the
stomach as salivary
amylase is denatured
4. Pancreatic amylase
takes the carbo to the
disaccharide level
5. Epithelium of the small
intestine produces
disaccharidases
24-61
B. Protein digestion
• 1. amino acid vs. protein
• 2. initial breakdown
begins in stomach with
pepsin
• 3. continues in intestine
with trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase
• 4. dipeptides are broken
down by peptidases from
epithelial cells of the
mucosa

24-62
C. Lipid digestion
• 1. categories of lipids
• a. phospholipids
• b. Triglycerides
• c. Cholesterol
• 2. diverse group but all
are hydrophobic
• 3. digestion
commences in the
small intestine with
pancreatic lipase and
bile salts

24-63
4. Transport of Lipids Across Intestinal Epithelium

24-64
5. Transport of Lipids in blood stream
• All lipids carried in the blood are done so in combination
with protein to make them soluble in plasma.
• Cholesterol: 15% ingested; 85% manufactured in liver and
intestinal mucosa
• Lipids are lower density than water; proteins are higher
density than water
• Chylomicrons: 99% lipid and 1% protein (extremely low
density); enter lymph
• VLDL: 92% lipid, 8% protein
– Form in which lipids leave the liver
– Triglycerides removed from VLDL and stored in
adipose cells. VLDL has been converted to LDL.
• LDL: 75% lipid, 25% protein
– Transports cholesterol to cells
– Cells have LDL receptors
– # of LDL receptors become less once cell’s
lipid/cholesterol needs are met.
• HDL: 55% lipid, 45% protein
– Transports excess cholesterol from cells to liver
24-65
Water and Ions

• Water: can move in

either direction across
wall of small intestine
depending on osmotic
gradients
• Ions: sodium,
potassium, calcium,
magnesium,
phosphate are actively
transported

24-66
 Biological molecules

Fatty acids, glycerol Fats, oils

(lipids)
 Biological molecules

Amino acids Proteins

ENZYMES
 ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts – they
speed up the rate of chemical reactions
going on inside living things.
 ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts – they
speed up the rate of chemical reactions
going on inside living things.

What are the features of enzymes?

 ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts – they
speed up the rate of chemical reactions
going on inside living things.

What are the features of enzymes?

• Enzymes are globular proteins

• Every enzyme has an area called its active site
• Enzymes are specific
• Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH
 ENZYMES
• Commonly named by adding the
ending “-ase” to the substrate
molecule being acted upon.

• Eg. sucrase works on sucrose, lipase

works on lipose.

• A few enzymes are known by

common names, eg. pepsin, trypsin
 ENZYME ACTION

Substrate Product

Enzyme

e.g. Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Sucrase
Enzyme summary
Salivary Gland -
produces amylase
which breaks down
carbohydrates (such
as starch) into simple
sugars (eg. glucose)
Enzyme summary

Stomach – produces
protease which
breaks down proteins
into amino acids
Enzyme summary

Pancreas – produces
amylase
(carbohydrates 
sugars), protease
(proteins  amino
acids), lipase (fats 
fatty acids + glycerol)
Enzyme summary

Small intestine –
produces amylase
(carbohydrates 
sugars), protease
(proteins  amino acids),
lipase (fats  fatty acids
+ glycerol)
Enzyme summary
One more thing
………….
Maltase, thought to
be produced by the
walls of the small
intestine, converts
the disaccharide
maltose (formed by
the action of amylase
on starch) into the
simple sugar glucose.
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 Content
Humans
2.21 identify sources and describe functions of
Lesson 1 carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils),
vitamins A, C and D, the mineral ions calcium and
iron, water and
dietary fibre as components of the diet
e) Nutrition 2.22 describe the structures of the human
alimentary canal and describe the functions of the
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine
and pancreas
2.23 understand the processes of ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion
2.24 explain how and why food is moved through
the gut by peristalsis
2.25 understand the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to glucose by
amylase and maltase, the digestion of proteins to
amino acids by proteases and the digestion of
lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
2.26 understand that bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder, and understand the
role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and
emulsifying
lipids
 End of Section 2 Lesson 3

In this lesson we have covered:

Nutrition – human