Surveying And

Geomatics
24CET205
 Syllab
us Module 1

Introduction to Surveying- Principles, Linear, angular and graphical methods, Survey stations, Survey lines-
ranging, Bearing of survey lines, Local attraction, Declination,
Levelling: Principles of levelling- Dumpy level, booking and reducing levels, Methods- simple, differential,
reciprocal leveling, profile levelling and cross sectioning. Digital and Auto Level, Errors in leveling
Contouring: Characteristics, methods, uses.
Module 2

Area and Volume: computation of area by offsets to base line, by dividing area into number of triangles; volume of
level section by prismoidal and trapezoidal formulae.
Mass diagram: Construction, Characteristics and uses

Theodolite survey: Instruments, Measurement of horizontal and vertical angle, principles of stadia and tangential
tacheometry (introduction only)

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 Module 3

Traverse Surveying - Methods of traversing, Checks in closed traverse, Traverse computations, Balancing the
traverse- Bowditch’s rule, Transit rule, graphical method based on Bowditch’s rule, Gales Traverse
table,omitted measurements (a line and an angle only)
Theory of Errors – Types, theory of least squares, Weighting of observations, Most probable value,
Computation of indirectly observed quantities - method of normal equations.

Module 4

Curve Surveying – Elements of simple and compound curves – Methods of setting out (Angular methods
only)– Elements of Reverse curve (Introduction only)– Transition curve – length of curve – Elements of
transition curve - Vertical curve (Introduction only)

Total Station – concept of EDM, principles and working, advantages and applications

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 Module 5

Global Positioning Systems-Components and principles, satellite ranging-calculating position,,

application of GPS, GPS Surveying methods-Static, Rapid static, Kinematic methods – DGPS

Remote Sensing : Definition- Electromagnetic spectrum-Energy interactions with atmosphere and earth
surface features-spectral reflectance of vegetation, soil and water- Classification of sensors- Active and
Passive, Resolution-spatial, spectral radiometric and Temporal resolution, Multi spectral scanning-Along
track and across track scanning

Geographical Information System-components of GIS, GIS operations, Map projections- methods,

Coordinate systems-Geographic and Projected coordinate systems, Data Types- Spatial and attribute data,
Raster and vector data representation

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 MODULE 1
Introduction to Surveying- Principles, Linear, angular and graphical methods,
Survey stations, Survey lines- ranging, Bearing of survey lines, Local attraction,
Declination

Levelling: Principles of levelling- Dumpy level, booking and reducing levels,

Methods- simple, differential, reciprocal leveling, profile levelling and cross
sectioning. Digital and Auto Level, Errors in leveling

Contouring: Characteristics, methods, uses.

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 Surveying
• Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of
distance, direction and elevation.

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• The object of a survey is to prepare plan or map so that it may represent the
area on a horizontal plane.

• A plan or map is the graphical representation of the features on, near or

below the earth’s surface which is projected on a horizontal plane
and is drawn to some scale.

• The representation is called a ’Map’ if the scale is small and if the scale is
large, it is called a ‘Plan’.

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USES OF SURVEYING

1. To prepare a topographical map (shows the hills, valley, rivers, villages, town etc, of a
country).
2. To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields houses, and other
properties.
3. To prepare an engineering map to show details like roads, railways, canals, etc.
4. To prepare military map shows strategic points.
5. To prepare contour map to find the best possible route for roads, railways etc.
6. To prepare archeological map including places where ancient relics exist.
7. To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Surveying is primarily classified as under:

1. Plane surveying

2. Geodetic Surveying

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 Plane Surveying

• Surface of earth is considered to be a plane surface.

• Applicable for small area (less than 260 sq. km.)
• Survey lines are considered straight.
• All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles

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 Geodetic Surveying

• True shape of the earth is taken into consideration.

• For highly precise work and is adopted for surveying of large area.
• Survey lines are considered as curved.
• All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as spherical triangles.

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CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON NATURE OF FIELD
(1) Land Surveying: It can be further classified as:

i) Topographical survey

The surveys which are carried out to determine the natural features of a country such as hills,
valleys, towns, villages, etc.

ii) Cadastral Survey

The surveys carried out to determine the boundaries of fields, houses, estates and other properties
are

iii) City Survey

The surveys which are carried out for the construction of roads, parks, water supply system, sewer
system
etc
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(2) Marine Surveying:

Marine or hydrographic survey deals with bodies of water for purpose of navigation,
water supply, harbour works or for determination of mean sea level.

(3) Astronomical Surveying

The astronomical survey offers the surveyor the means of determining the absolute
location of any point or the absolute location of and direction of any line on the
surface of the earth.

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 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
Working from whole to part

• To work from whole to part is applicable to both plane as well as

geodetic survey

• The surveyor should first establish the large frame work consisting of
main control points, accurately using most accurate / precise
instruments.

• In between the large frame work so established, subsidiary small

frame works can be established by a relatively less accurate survey.

• By doing so, the errors in small frame work get localized and are not
magnified and thus prevents the accumulation of errors
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Location of a point by measurement from at least two points of
reference.
• The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of which
have already been fixed.

• Take two control points A and B and the distance between them is accurately
measured.

• By using A and B, two control points whose positions are already known on
the plan, the position of C can be plotted by any of the following methods:

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LINEAR METHODS OF SURVEYING

There are various methods of making linear measurements and their relative
merit depends upon the degree of precision required.

They can be mainly divided into :

1. Direct measurements
2. Measurements by optical means
3. Electro-magnetic methods

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I. Direct measurements:
Distances are actually measured on the ground with help of a chain or
a tape or any other instrument.

The various methods of measuring the distances directly are as follows

(1) Pacing:

The method consists in counting the number of paces between the two
points of a line.

The length of the line can then be computed by knowing the average
length of the pace.

The length of the pace varies with the individual, and also with the
nature of the ground.

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(2) Passometer:

Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch and is carried in pocket or

attached to one leg.
The mechanism of the instrument is operated by motion of the body and it
automatically registers the number of paces, thus avoiding the monotony and strain of counting
the paces, by the surveyor.
The number of paces registered by the passometer can then be multiplied
by the average length of the pace to get the distance.

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(3) Pedometer:

Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer except that, adjusted to the length of the
pace of the person carrying it; it registers the total distance covered by any number of
paces.

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(4) Odometer and Speedometer.
• The odometer is an instrument for registering the number of revolutions of a wheel.
The odometer is fitted to a wheel which is rolled along the line whose length is
required.
• The number of revolutions registered by the odometer can then be multiplied by the
circumference of the wheel to get the distance.
• The speedometer of an automobile can be used to measure the distance
approximately.

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(5) Chaining
Chaining is a term which is used to denote
measuring distance either with the help of a
chain or a tape and is the most accurate
method of making direct measurements.

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2. Measurements by optical means:

In the optical methods, principles of optics are used.

The distance is not actually measured in field but it is

computed indirectly.

Observations are taken through a telescope and calculations are

done for the distances, such as in tacheometry or triangulation.

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3. Electro-magnetic methods:

In the electro-magnetic methods, distances are

measured with instruments that rely on propagation,
reflection and subsequent reception of radio waves,
light waves or infrared waves.

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 RANGING OUT OF SURVEY LINES

The process of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line

between two fixed points or two survey stations is called as ranging.

There are two methods of ranging

1. Direct Method (Two ends of survey line or stations are inter-visible)

2. Indirect Method (Two ends of survey line or stations are not inter-visible)

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DIRECT RANGING

• Direct ranging is done when the two ends of the survey

lines are intervisible.

• In such cases, ranging can either be done by eye or

through some optical instrument such as a line ranger or
theodolite.

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 (1) Ranging by eye

• Let A and B be the two points at the survey line.

• One ranging rod is erected at the point B while the surveyor

stands with another ranging rod at point A, holding the rod at
about half metre length.

• The assistant then goes with another ranging rod and

establishes the rod at a point approximately in the line with AB
(by judgment) at a distance not greater than one chain length
from A.
• The surveyor at A then signals the assistant to move transverse to the chain line, till he is in
line with A and B.

• Similarly, other intermediate points can be established

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 (2) Ranging by line ranger

• A line ranger consists of either two plane mirrors or two

right angled isosceles prisms placed one above the
other.

• The diagonals of the two prisms are silvered so as to reflect

the incident rays.

• A handle with a hook is provided at the bottom to hold the

instrument in hand to transfer the point on the ground
with the help of plumb-bob.

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INDIRECT OR RECIPROCAL RANGING
Indirect or Reciprocal ranging is resorted to when both the ends of the survey line are
not intervisible either due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between
them.

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• Ranging is done indirectly by selecting two intermediate points M1 and N1,
very near to the chain line (by judgement) in such a way that from
M1,both N1 and B are visible and from N1, both M, and A are visible.

• Two surveyors station themselves at M1 and N1 with ranging rods. The

person at M1 then directs the person at N1 to move to a new position N2 in
line with M1 B. The person at N2 then directs the person at Ml to move to a
new position M2 in line with M1A.

• Thus, the two persons are now at M2 and N2 which are nearer to the chain
line than the positions M1 and N1. The process is repeated till the points M
and N are located in such a way that the person at M finds the person at N in
line with MB, and the person at N finds the person at M in line with NA. After
having established M and N, other points can be fixed by direct ranging.

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Principle of chain surveying
• The principle of chain surveying is to divide the area into a number of triangles.
• A triangle is the only simple plane geometrical figure which can be plotted from the length of
the three sides even if the angles are not known.
• If the area to be surveyed is triangle in shape and if the lengths and sequence of its three sides
are recorded, the plan of the area can be easily drawn.

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 SURVEY STATIONS

A survey station is a prominent point on the chain line and can be either at the
beginning of the chain line or at the end.

Main survey stations: The points where the two sides of a main triangle meet are
called as main survey stations.

Subsidiary or tie stations: The stations which are selected anywhere else on main
survey lines for running auxiliary lines are called as subsidiary or tie stations.

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 SURVEY LINES
The lines joining the survey stations are termed as survey lines.

Main survey lines: The lines which join the main survey stations with each other are
called main survey lines.

Subsidiary or tie lines: The lines which join tie stations with main stations are called
tie lines. These are provided to locate the interior details which are for away from the
main lines.

Base Line: The line on which the frame work of the survey is built is known as the
baseline. Generally, the longest line of the main survey lines is considered as base
line. This line should be taken through a fairly level ground, measured carefully and
accurately.
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Check Lines: The lines which run in the field to check the accuracy of the work are
called check lines.
Each triangle must have a check line. Sometimes, these lines also help to locate
interior details of the survey.
• If the measured length of a check line agrees with the length scaled off the
plan;
the survey is correct.

Well Conditioned Triangles: A triangle is said to be well-conditioned when no angle

in it is less than 30°or greater than 120°

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 Offsets
The lateral distance measured from the survey line of an object or any other feature on the
ground like buildings, boundaries roads etc.

Use: To locate the ground features with reference to the chain line

There are two types of offsets.

(a) Perpendicular offsets
(b) Oblique offsets

The maximum length of offset should not be more than the length of the tape used.
Generally, the maximum length of offset is limited to 15 m

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Perpendicular offsets: When the offsets are taken perpendicular to the chain line, theyare
called as perpendicular offsets.

Oblique offsets: Offsets which are not perpendicular to the chain line is called oblique
offsets.
These offsets are taken in the following situations:
(i) When the objects are at a long distance from the chain line
(ii) When it is not possible to set-up a right angle due to some reason.

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 CONDITIONS TO BE FULFILLED BY SURVEY LINES OR SURVEY STATIONS

(1) Survey stations must be mutually visible.

(2) Survey lines must be as few as possible so that
the framework can be plotted conveniently.
(3) The framework must have one or two base lines.
(4) The lines must run through level ground as
possible.
(5)The main lines should form well-
conditioned triangles.

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 (6)Each triangle or portion of skeleton must
be provided with sufficient check lines

(7)All the lines from which offsets are taken

should be placed close to the corresponding
surface features so as to get short offsets.

(8)As far as possible, the main survey lines

should not pass through obstacles.

(9)To avoid trespassing, the main survey lines

should fall within the boundaries of the property to
be surveyed.

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 ANGULAR METHODS OF SURVEYING
COMPASS SURVEYING

• Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small
and is fairly flat.
• However, when large areas are involved, methods of chain surveying alone are
not sufficient and convenient.
• If large areas are to be surveyed, it becomes essential to use some sort of
instrument which enables angles or directions of the survey lines to be observed.

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 Instruments for the direct measurement of directions
(i) Surveyor's Compass
(ii) Prismatic Compass

Instruments for measurements of angles

(i) Sextant

(ii) Theodolite
Surveyor's
Compass

Prismatic
Compass
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 BEARINGS AND ANGLES

The direction of a survey line can either be established

(a) with relation to each other, or

(b) with relation to any meridian.

The first will give the angle between two lines while the second
will give the bearing of the line.

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BEARING OF A LINE
Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given meridian.

(1) True meridian

A true meridian, also known as a geographic meridian, is an imaginary line on the Earth's
surface that passes through the geographic North and South poles, and a specific point on the
Earth. It represents the true north direction for that particular location.

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 True Bearing
• The true bearing of a line is the horizontal angle between the true meridian and
the survey line.
• The true bearing is measured from the true north in the clockwise direction.

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Magnetic Meridian:
An imaginary line on the Earth's surface that passes
through the magnetic North and South poles, and a
specific point on the Earth

Magnetic meridian through a point is the direction

shown by a freely floating and balanced magnetic
needle free from all other attractive forces.

The direction of magnetic meridian can be

established with the help of a magnetic compass.

Magnetic Bearing:
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the
magnetic meridian measured from Magnetic North
line is called magnetic bearing.

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Arbitrary Meridian
Arbitrary meridian For small surveys, to determine the relative positions of
lines, any convenient direction to some well-defined permanent object may
be taken as a meridian.

Arbitrary Bearing: Arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it

makes with arbitrary meridian passing through one of the extremities.
A theodolite or sextant is used to measure it.

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DESIGNATION OF BEARINGS

The common systems of notation of bearings are as follows:

(a) The Whole Circle Bearing System. (Azimuthal system)

• In this system, the bearing of a line is measured with

north in clockwise.
• It will have values between 0°and 360°

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(b) Quadrantal Bearing System
• Reduced bearing
• A surveyor compass observes the quadrantal
bearings.
• In the Q.B. system, the bearings of lines are
measured clockwise or anticlockwise from
north or south, whichever is nearer to the line.

Quadrantal bearing of :

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REDUCED BEARING

W.C.B. between R.B. Quadrant

0 - 90° W.C.B NE
90 - 180° 180° - W.C.B SE
180° - 270° W.C.B. - 180° SW
270° - 360° 360° - W.C.B. NW

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 W.C.B Q.B
(i) 56°20' N56°20'E
(ii) 170°05' 180°- 170°05'
= S9°55'E
(iii) 218°30' 218°30' - 180°
= S38°30'W
(iv) 272°50' 360° - 218°30'
= N87°10'W

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 Q.B. W.C.B
(i) N10° 00'E 10°00'

(ii) S30° 14'E 180° - 30° 14'

= 149°46'
(iii) S02° 10'W 180° + 02°10'
= 182°10'
(iv) N18°20'W 360° - 18°20'
= 341°40'

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FORE BEARING AND BACK BEARING
Fore Bearing (F.B.): The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of the
survey is called the fore or forward bearing.
Back Bearing (B.B.): The bearing of a line in the opposite direction of
progress of the survey is known as back or reverse bearing.

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From the figure, FB of AB = α and BB of AB = β if the direction of chaining is from
A to B.

If the direction of chaining is from B to A, then FB of BA = α and BB of BA = β

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 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FB AND BB
1. W.C.B. system If the fore bearing of a line is known then,
Back bearing = Fore bearing ± 180 °

2.Q.B. system The fore and back bearings are numerically equal but are in
opposite directions, i.e., N is replaced by S or vice versa and E is replaced by W or
vice versa.

For example, if the fore bearing of a line is N30°E, its back bearing will be S30°W.

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Question

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DECLINATION
• The horizontal angle which a magnetic meridian makes with the true meridian is
called the magnetic declination.
• Declination varies from place to place and at any station time to time.

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• If at the time of observation, the magnetic meridian is on the eastern side of
the true meridian, the angle of declination is said to be the eastern or positive
declination.
• If the magnetic meridian is on the western side of the true meridian, it is said
to be western or negative declination.
• When true and magnetic meridian coincide, the declination is zero.

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The magnetic bearings of the line PQ is S40°E and the magnetic declination is
8°5’E. What is the true bearing of the line?

Solution:
The W.C.B. of the line PQ = 180°- 40°= 140°

True bearing of PQ = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W.

= 140°+ 8°5’
= 148°5’

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MAGNETIC INCLINATION OR MAGNETIC DIP
• Magnetic inclination or magnetic dip is the angle (I) between the horizontal
plane and the magnetic field vector.

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• Between the magnetic poles there is an area called the magnetic equator
where inclination or the magnetic dip angle is zero.
• To the north of the magnetic equator, the north end of the compass
needle points downward, both I and vertical component Z are positive.
• To the south of the magnetic equator, the south end of the needle points
downward, that is I and vertical component Z are both negative.

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LOCAL ATTRACTION

Local attraction by the magnetic materials is the disturbing influence on

the magnetic needle of the compass.

The amount of deviation of the magnetic needle is the measure of local

attraction.

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Detection of Local Attraction

The local attraction at any station is detected by observing the fore and back
bearings of the line.
If the difference between them is 180°, both the end stations are considered to be
free from local attraction, provided the compass is devoid of any instrumental
errors.
If not, the discrepancy may be due to:
1. an error in observation of either fore or back bearing,
2. presence of local attraction at either or both of the stations.

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 Elimination of Local Attraction

If there is local attraction at a station, all the bearings measured at that place will
be incorrect and the amount of error will be equal in all the bearings

There are two methods by which local attraction can be eliminated,

• By calculating the local attraction at each station

• By included angles

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a)By calculating the local attraction at
each station:

Local attraction at each station is calculated and then the required corrections are
applied to the observed bearings. It is most suitable for an open
traverse. The steps involved are:

[Link] a line whose fore and back bearings differ exactly by

1800.
2. The end stations of such a line are accepted free from local attraction and the
bearing observed at such stations are taken to be corrected. All the bearings
observed on these stations are assumed to be free from local attraction.

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3. The back bearing of the preceding line and the fore bearing of the next line will
also be correct, since these are observed at the stations free from local
attraction. The correct fore bearing of the preceding line or back bearing of the
next line may be calculated by adding or subtracting 1800 as the case may be
and thus the correct bearing is obtained.

4. If the observed bearing is more than the correct bearing determined in the step
3, the error at the station will be positive and therefore the correction will be
negative, and vice versa.

5. The bearings of the line are thus corrected one by one in succession.

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 QUESTION
The following bearings were taken in running an open traverse with a compass in a place
where local attraction was suspected.
Mention which stations were affected by local attraction and determine the corrected
bearing

Line F.B. B.B.

AB 44°40' 225°20'

BC 96°20' 274°18'

CD 30°40' 212°2'

DE 320°12' 140°12'

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 Line F.B. B.B. |FB-BB|

AB 44°40' 225°20' 180°40’

BC 96°20' 274°18' 177°58’

CD 30°40' 212°2' 181°22’

DE 320°12' 140°12' 180°

Line DE is free from local attraction. Hence, both stations D & E are free from
local attraction.
Station A, B & C are having local attraction.

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LINE Observed Correction Corrected Remarks
Bearing Bearing
AB 44°40’ 0 44°40’ 224°40’-180 = 44°40’
BA 225°20’ -0°40’ @ B 224°40’ 22520’-0°40’ = 44°40’
BC 96°20' -0°40’ @ B 95°40’ 275°40’ -180° =95°40’
CB 274°18' +1°22’ @ C 275°40’ 274°18‘+1°22’ =275°40’
CD 30°40' +1°22’ @ C 32°2’ BB =FB + 180°
BB-180° =FB
212°2‘ – 180° =32°2’
DC 212°2' 0@ D 212°2’
DE 320°12' 0@ D 320°12’
ED 140°12' 0@ E 140°12’

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QUESTION

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Convert the quadrantal bearings to W.C.B.
FB BB |FB-BB|

AB 134°30' 314⁰30’ 180°

BC 120⁰00' 299°20' 179°20’

CD 03°20' 185°30' 182°10’

DA 265°00' 83°30' 181°57’

• Stations A & B are free from local

attraction.
• Station C & D are having local attraction.
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LINE Observed Correction Corrected Remarks
Bearing Bearing
AB 134°30' 0@ A 134°30’
BA 314⁰30’ 0@ B 314⁰30’
BC 120⁰00' 0@ B 120⁰00'
CB 299°20' +40’@ C 300°0’ 120⁰00' + 180° =300°0’
CD 03°20' +40’@ C 4°0’
DC 185°30' -1°30’ @ D 183°30’ 185°30‘-1°30’ =183°30’
DA 265°00' -1°30’ @ D 263°30’ 83°30‘+ 180° =263°30’
AD 83°30' 0@ A 83°30’

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 (b) By included angles:

This method is most suitable for a closed traverse.

It may be noted that the local attraction affects all the magnetic bearings
observed at that station by a fixed amount and in the same direction.

Therefore, the included angles deduced even from the bearings affected by
local attraction will be the true included angles at the affected stations.

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To correct the affected bearings, the following process is carried out.
1. Calculate the interior angles of the traverse and check their sum against (2n
± 4) right angles. If there is any error in the observed bearings other than
local attraction, the theoretical sum of included angles will not tally with
the sum of the calculated included angles.
2. Distribute the error, if any, equally to all the angles.

3. Locate the line, whose fore and back bearings differ by 1800.

4. Find out the correct bearing of the successive lines by using the correct
observed bearing and the corrected included angles

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QUESTION
Given below are the bearings observed in a traverse survey conducted with a prismatic compass at
a place where local attraction was suspected:

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As the traverse is running anticlockwise, the
included angles will be the interior angles.

Angle at A = F.B. of AB - B.B. of DA

= 124°30' - 17°45'
=106°45'

Angle at B = F.B. of BC - B.B. of AB

= 68°15' - 304°30'
= - 236°15'
= 360° - 236° 15'
= 123°45'

Angle at C = F.B. of CD - B.B. of BC

= 310°30' - 246°00'
= 64°30‘

Angle at D = F.B. of DA - B.B. of CD

= 200°15' - 135°15'
= 65°00'
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 Theoretical sum of interior angles = (2n - 4) x 90°
= (2 x 4 – 4)x 90 = 360°
Sum of observed angles = <A + <B + <C + <D
= 106°45' + 123°45' + 64°30' +
65°00'
= 360°
Calculation
Bearing of Bearings
of the line AB = 124°30'

Add included angle at B + 123°45'

Sum = 248°15'

Sum is more than 180°,subtract 180° -180°00‘

Bearing of the line BC 68°15'

Add included angle at C + 64°30'

Sum = 132°45'
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Sum = 132°45'

Sum is less than 180°, add 180° + 180°00'

Bearing of the line CD = 312°45'

Add included angle at D + 65°00'

Sum 377°45'

Sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° - 180°00'

bearing of line DA = 197°45’

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LEVELLING

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Levelling is a branch of surveying used to

(i) to find the elevations of points with respect to a

given or assumed datum, and

(ii) to establish points at a given elevation or at different

elevations with respect to a given or
assumed datum.
Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

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 Level Surface : A surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is called level surface,

.
eg:- a still lake

Vertical line : It is a line from any point on the earth’s surface to the centre of the
earth. It is commonly considered to be the line defined by a plumb line.

Level line : It is a line lying on a level surface. It is normal to the plumb line at all the
points.

Horizontal plane : It is a plane tangential to the level surface at the point under
consideration. It is perpendicular to the plumb line.

Horizontal line : It is line lying in the horizontal plane. It is a straight line tangential
to
the level line. 96
Elevation : Elevation of a point is the vertical distance above
or below the datum. It is also known as reduced level (R.L.).

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Axis of telescope : It is a line joining the optical centre of

the objective to the centre of the eyepiece.

Line of sight : It is a line joining the intersection of the cross- hairs to the
optical centre of the objective and its continuation.
Since in leveling the line of sight should remain horizontal while making the
sights, the line of sight when horizontal is called the line of collimation.

96
97
98
Height of instrument (H.I.) : It is the elevation of the plane of collimation
when the instrument is leveled.

It should be noted that the height of an instrument does not mean the height of
the centre of the telescope above the ground, where the level is set up.

99
Back sight (B.S.) : It is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation, e.g.
a sight on a bench mark (station A) or on a change point, i.e. station C.
Here, a and c1 are back sights. It is the staff reading taken after the level is set
up. It is also called plus sight.

100
Fore sight (F.S.) : It is a staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be
determined, e.g. a sight on a change point, i.e. station C and D.

Here, c and d are fore sights. It is also called minus sight. It is the last staff
reading and denotes the shifting of the level.

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Intermediate sight (I.S.) : It is staff reading taken on a point of unknown elevation
between backsight and foresight, e.g. a sight on station B. Here, b is the intermediate sight.

Change point (C.P.) or turning point (T.P.) : It is a point, denoting the shifting of level.
Both F.S. and B.S. are taken on this point. e.g. station C

102
 Bench Mark (B.M.) : It is affixed reference point of known elevation. Depending upon
the permanency and precision, bench marks may be of the following types:

a) Great Trigonometric Survey (G.T.S.) bench marks : These are established by the Survey of India
at an interval of about of 100 km all over the country with respect to the mean sea level at
Bombay Port as datum. Their elevations are shown on a G.T.S. map.

103
Permanent bench marks : These are established between the G.T.S. bench marks by the
government agencies like P.W.D. on clearly defined and permanent points such as the top of a
parapet wall of a bridge or culvert, kilometer stone, railway platform, etc.

Arbitrary bench marks : These are reference points whose elevations are arbitrarily assumed for
small leveling operations. Their elevations do not refer to any fixed datum.

104
Temporary bench marks : These are the reference points on which a day’s work is closed and
from where leveling is continued the next day. Such a B.M. is carefully established on permanent
objects like kilometer stones, parapets, etc.

105
INSTRUMENTS USED IN LEVELLING

The following instruments are used in

levelling.

Level with tripod

Levelling staff

106
 LEVEL

The instrument which is used for measuring related elevations is known

as a level and consists of the following parts:

1. The telescope to provide a line of sight

2. A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
3. A leveling head to bring the bubble of the level tube at the centre of its
run.
4. A tripod head to support the above three parts of a level.

107
Dumpy Level
This is the most widely used direct leveling
instrument.

It consists of a telescope which is rigidly fixed to

its support.

It can neither be rotated about its longitudinal axis

nor can it be removed from its support.

It is very advantageous when several observations

are to be made with one setup of the instrument.

108
109
Automatic or Adjusting Level
It is similar to the dumpy level with its
telescope fixed to the tribrach.

For approximate levelling, a circular spirit

bubble is
attached to the side of the telescope.

For accurate levelling, a stabilizer or compensator

is fitted inside the telescope, which automatically
levels the instrument.

The automatic levelling utilizes the action of gravity

in its operation.

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111
 Digital Level

• The digital level can be used for any type of

levelling in the same way as an optical level but has
the advantage of being able to measure and record
electronically.

• A digital level uses electronic image- processing

techniques and interrogates a specially made
bar- coded staff in order to obtain readings.

112
• A correlation procedure within the instrument translates the pattern into the vertical
staff reading and the horizontal distance of the staff from the instrument.
• The field data area automatically stored by the instrument on its recording module.
• The staff- reading errors, the data- booking errors and calculations are
thus eliminated.
• In good conditions, the digital level has a range of 100m, but this can deteriorate
if the staff is not brightly and evenly illuminated throughout its scanned area.
• The factors that affect the measuring procedure are pointing and focussing;
vibration of the compensator caused by wind, traffic etc; heat shimmer, and the
insufficient
light.
113
LEVELLING STAFF

A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a

graduated wooden or aluminium rod, used with
a levelling instrument to determine the
difference in height between points or heights
of points above a vertical datum.

Least count – 5mm

Length 2-5m

114
Self- Reading Levelling Staff Target Staff

115
 PRINCIPLES OF LEVELING

The principle of leveling is to obtain the

difference of levels of two points with the
instrument known as level.

This can be achieved either by simple

or differential leveling

116
 1. Simple Leveling

• It is the simplest operation in leveling, when it is required to find the difference in

elevation between two points, both of which are visible from a single position of
the level.
• The readings can be obtained on a staff held successively upon these points.
• To eliminate the instrumental error, the sight distance to the two staff positions
should be kept as nearly equal as possible.

117
2. Differential Levelling
• Determining the difference in elevation between two or more points without
any
regard to the alignment of the points is called differential leveling.

• It is used when:
(a) two points are a large distance apart,
(b) the difference in elevation between the two points is large and
(c) some obstacle intervenes between the points

118
 Booking
 Level books or loose-leaf levelling sheets shall be numbered and indexed in a register.
 Enter the first observation (which is on a known point) in the backsight column,
and sufficient detail in the Remarks column to identify it. Enter the point's R.L from
the site register or plate on the BM, etc.
 Enter all other points on subsequent lines as intermediates except the point chosen
as the foresight. Identify them in the Remarks column as above. Enter the foresight
on a further line in the Foresight column.
 Change the instrument to the next setup. Enter the following backsight on the
same line as the previous foresight but in the backsight column.
 Repeat the above procedure at each setup on the outward run then reverse it to work
back to the starting point on the return run. The furthest point out is treated as for all
other change points.

119
 Reducing levels
Reduced Level in surveying refers to equating elevations of survey points
with reference to a common assumed datum.

It is a vertical distance between survey point and adopted datum plane.

Thus it is considered as the base elevation which is used as reference to

reckon heights or depths of other important places.

Reduced here means equating and Level means Elevations.

Datum may be real or imaginary location with a nominated elevation of

straight zero.

120
Booking & Reducing Levels

There are two methods of booking and reducing the

elevation of points from the observed staff readings

1. Collimation or Height of instrument method

2. Rise and fall method

121
Rise and Fall method
 Calculate the rises and fall between successive points and book them in the appropriate column
 Add up the backsight and foresight columns for the entire traverse and note the difference between
them
 Add up the rises and falls for the entire traverse, and compare the difference between them with the
difference between the backsights and foresights; they should be the same
 Carry the reduced levels in the R.L. column down the page by adding or subtracting the appropriate
rise and fall values to the successive values of R.L.
 The final value of the original starting point will differ from the original value by the amount of the
close. If the levelling has been done correctly and all arithmetic reductions are correct, the differences
between total backsights and foresights, total rises and falls, and starting and finishing R.L.'s should
be the same.

122
Height of collimation method

In this method height of the instrument is calculated for the first setting of
instrument by adding the back sight to the reduced level of the given Bench
Mark.

The reduced level of the first station is obtained by subtracting its fore sight
from the instrument height (H.I.).

123
QUESTION
The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and a 4.0 m staff on a continuously
sloping ground at a common interval of 30 m.

0.780, 1.535, 1.955, 2.430, 2.985, 3.480, 1.155, 1.960, 2.365, 3.640, 0.935, 1.045, 1.630 and
2.545.

The reduced level of the first point A was 180.750 m. Rule out a page of a level field book
and enter the above readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the points by the collimation
system, and the rise and fall system. Also calculate the gradient of the line joining the first and

the last points .

124
 Readings
Station Distance B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall Reduced Remarks
level

A 0 0.780 180.750 B.M.

30 1.535 0.755 179.995
60 1.955 0.420 179.575
90 2.430 0.475 179.100
120 2.985 0.555 178.545
150 1.155 3.480 0.495 178.050 C.P.
180 1.960 0.805 177.245
210 2.365 0.405 176.840
240 0.935 3.640 1.275 175.565 C.P.
270 1.045 0.110 175.455
300 1.630 0.585 174.870
B 330 2.545 0.915 173.955

∑ B. S. - ∑ F. S. =
R.L. of last point –
Arithmetical ∑Rise - ∑Fall = R.L. of first point =
2.780 – 9.665 = -
checks 6.795 0 – 6.795 = 173.955 – 180. 750
= - 6.795
- 6.795
125
There is a fall of 6.795 m in 330m

Gradient = 6.795 /330 = 1 in 48.56

126
QUESTION
The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and a 4.0 m staff on a continuously
sloping ground at a common interval of 30 m.

0.780, 1.535, 1.955, 2.430, 2.985, 3.480, 1.155, 1.960, 2.365, 3.640, 0.935, 1.045,
1.630 and 2.545.

The reduced level of the first point A was 180.750 m. Rule out a page of a level
field book and enter the above readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the points
by the collimation system, and the rise and fall system. Also calculate the gradient
of the line joining the first and the last points.

127
 Readings
By Collimation Method
Station Distance B.S. I.S. F.S. HI or Reduced Remarks
Collimation level

A 0 0.780 181.530 180.750 B.M.

30 1.535 179.995
60 1.955 179.575
90 2.430 179.100
120 2.985 178.545
150 1.155 3.480 179.205 178.050 C.P.
180 1.960 177.245
210 2.365 176.840
240 0.935 3.640 176.500 175.565 C.P.
270 1.045 175.455
300 1.630 174.870
B 330 2.545 173.955

∑ B. S. - ∑ F. S. = R.L. of last point – R.L. of

Arithmetical checks 2.780 – 9.665 = - first point = 173.955 –
6.795 180.
750 =
- 6.795
128
INVERTED STAFF

When the point, whose elevation is to be found, is much above the line of sight, the staff is
placed inverted with its zero end touching its point.

The reading on the staff is taken in the usual manner.

Such an observation is entered in the level page book with a minus sign, for convenience.

129
Find the height of a Tee-beam above the floor level. The R.L of the floor is 100.855 m and the staff
reading on the floor is 2.055 m. The reading on a staff held upside down against the underside of the
beam is 3.565 m.

R.L. of plane of collimation,

H.I. = 100.855 + 2.055

= 102.90 m

R.L. of the underside of Tee-beam = 102.910 + 3.655

=106.475 m

Hence, the height of the Tee-beam above the floor level

= 106.475 — 100.855 130
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
It is the operation of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two
points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations.

This method is very useful when the instrument cannot be set up between the two
points due to an obstruction such as river, valley, etc., and if the sights are much
longer than are ordinarily permissible.

For such long sights the error of reading the staff, the curvature of earth, and the
imperfect adjustments of the instrument become predominant.

Special methods like reciprocal levelling should be used to minimize these errors.

131
@A: H= ha- (hb - e)
@B: H= (ha’-e) - hb‘

Taking the average of true differences in

elevation,

2H = [ha- (hb - e) + (ha’-e) - hb‘]

2H = (ha- hb) + (ha’- hb‘)
H = ½ [(ha- hb) + (ha’- hb‘)]

132
The following notes refer to reciprocal levels taken with one level. Find
the true R.L. of Q .

• When readings are taken from P, elevation difference b/w P & Q = 2.78-1.824
= 0.924

• When readings are taken from P, elevation difference b/w P & Q = 1.606-
0.928
= 0.678

133
True difference in elevation = (0.924+0.678)/2
= 0.801 m

Since the staff reading taken on P is smaller value compared to the staff
reading taken from Q. We can say Point P is higher than Q

Therefore, RL of Q = RL of P – True difference in elevation

= 126.386 – 0.801
= 125.585

134
 PROFILE LEVELLING (LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING)

Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of points at short

measured intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of a railway, highway,
canal or sewer.

The fixed line may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession of
straight lines or of a series of straight lines connected by curves.

By means of such sections the engineer is enabled to study the relationship between
the existing ground surface and the level of the proposed construction in the
direction of its length.

135
136
CROSS- SECTIONING

Cross- sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side of
it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface.

They provide the data for estimating quantities of earthwork and for other purposes.
The cross- sections are numbered consecutively from the commencement of the
centre- line and are set out at right angles to the main lines of section with the chain
and tape, the cross- staff or the optical square and the distances are measured left
and right from the centre peg.

Cross section may be taken at each chain. The length of cross- section depends upon
the nature of work.
137
138
ERRORS IN LEVELLING

• These may be classified as instrumental, natural and personal.

• Errors can be reduced by careful adjustment, by establishing standard

field procedures and adhering to these, but they cannot be eliminated.

139
 Instrumental Errors
Error due to imperfect adjustment
The permanent adjustment of the instrument may not be perfect i.e. the line of collimation
may
not be parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.

Error due to sluggish bubble

If the bubble is sluggish, it will come to rest in wrong position.

Error due to defective joints of staff

Joint of extendable levelling staff may be worn out after using for a long period.

Error due incorrect graduation

The graduation of the levelling staff may not be perfect..

140
 Natural Errors
Refraction
Due to refraction, the ray of light bend downwards, which decreases the staff readings.

Earth's curvature
On sighting long distances, effect of earth's curvature increases the staff readings.

Settlement of tripod or levelling staff.

The readings will be incorrect, if the leg of the tripod settles in the soil.
Settlement of levelling staff at change points b/w taking F.S. and B.S. will also produce error.

Variations in temperature
The adjustments of the instrument may be disturbed due to unequal heating of the
instrument.

Effects of wind
The effect of high winds may disturb the instrument as well as the levelling staff
141
 Personal Errors
Mistakes in setting up the level, focusing the eyepiece and objective, setting the collimation,
and in holding the staff may lead to wrong observations.

Surveyors should, therefore, be careful in making and observing the adjustments.

Some of the most common mistakes are reading the staff incorrectly, failing to extend the staff
properly, allowing the turning point to change before its propose is satisfied, and incorrectly
recording the field notes.

142
CONTOURING

143
Contour
• A contour may be defined as an imaginary line passing through points of equal
elevation.
• Thus, contour lines on a plan illustrate the conformation of the ground.
• A contour line is the intersection of a level surface with the surface of the earth.

144
 Contour Interval
• The vertical distance between consecutive contours is termed as contour interval.

• It is desirable to have a constant contour interval throughout the map. However, in

special cases, a variable contour interval may also be provided.
• A variable contour interval is, as far as possible avoided since it gives a
false impression of the relative steepness of the ground in different parts of the map.
• Usually contour intervals are taken 1 to 15 m.

• The smaller the contour interval, the more precisely the terrain relief is delineated on
the plan.

145
The contour interval depends upon the following factors:

[Link] of the map: Contour interval is inversely proportional to the scale of the map.

[Link] of the map: Contour interval is kept large up to 2.0 m for projects such as
highways and railways, whereas it is kept as small as 0.5 m for measurement of
earth works, building sites, dams, etc.

[Link] of the Country: Contour interval varies with the topography of the area. It is
large for steep grounds and small for flat grounds.

[Link]: Contour interval is kept large when time is less.

[Link]: Contour interval is kept large when funds are short and limited.

146
 Horizontal Equivalent
•The horizontal distance between consecutive contours is termed as
horizontal equivalent.
•It is not a constant value and varies from point to point depending upon the steepness
of the ground.
•Steeper the ground, lesser is the horizontal equivalent.

Contour Gradient

•A line lying on the ground surface throughout, and maintaining a constant inclination
to the horizontal is termed as contour gradient.

147
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR
LINES

148
149
150
151
USES OF CONTOURS
Contours are used by engineers in a variety of ways. Some of the engineering uses of
contours are the following:
1. With the help of a contour map, proper and precise location of engineering works
such as
roads, canals, etc can be decided.
2. In location of water supply, water distribution and to solve the problems of
stream
pollution, etc.
3. Planning and designing of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, transmission lines etc.
4. To select sites for new industrial plants.
5. To ascertain the intervisibility of stations.
6. To ascertain the profile of the country along any direction.
152
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