UNIT - II

ALLOY STEELS
 ALLOY STEELS

• Purposes of alloying – general effects of alloying elements – nickel

steels, chromium steels, manganese steels, silicon steels,
molybdenum steels, vanadium steels, cobalt steels – their
compositions, properties and uses – high speed steel and stainless
steels – standard commercial sizes and ISI specifications.
 ALLOY STEEL
Pure iron is very soft and weak for industrial uses. So we have to improve its different

properties. This can be done by adding other metals and non metals in proper ratio

with iron. This process is known as alloying.

For example, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is stronger than pure iron.

Similarly by adding metals like Nickel, Chromium, Manganese, Silicon, Tungsten,

Molybdenum, Vanadium or Cobalt with Steel, we can get different alloy steels.

These alloy steels have improved properties suitable for specific purposes.

If the total of alloying elements are less than 8% the steel is known as low alloy

steel. If it is more than 8% it is known as high alloy steel.

 ALLOY STEEL
• All plain carbon steels contain manganese (upto about 0.9%) and silicon (upto
about 0.3%).

• But these steels are not considered as alloy steels. Because silicon and manganese
act only as deoxidisers.

• Silicon and manganese combine with oxygen and sulphur to reduce their harmful
effects in steel.

• Only when silicon and manganese exceed the above percentages, they act as
alloying elements.

• These alloying elements change the structure of steel. Structural changes depend
 ALLOY STEEL
• By alloying, physical, mechanical and other properties of iron and
steel are improved.

• In general, alloy steels can give better strength, ductility and

toughness properties than carbon steel.

• One or more alloying elements can be added to steel.

• Every alloying element will have a particular effect on the metal. The
result is the collective improvement in the properties.
 PURPOSES OF ALLOYING

• In general alloying elements are added to steel in small percentage

(i.e less than 5%) to improve strength and hardenability.

• Alloying elements are added in larger percentage (up to 20%) to steel

to get special properties such as corrosion resistance and stability at
higher temperatures.
PURPOSES OF ALLOYING
• Alloying is done for any one or more of the following purposes.
• To improve hardness and hardenability.
• To improve wear resistance.
• To improve corrosion resistance.
• To improve tensile strength.
• To retain physical properties at high or low temperatures.
• To refine the grain size.
• To retain machinability, at increased hardness.
• To improve fatigue resistance.
• To improve electrical properties.
• To obtain the required structure in the metal
 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS IN STEEL
• Steel contains iron and carbon. Carbon exists in steel as ferrites.

• Carbon may also be present in the form of carbides of other elements added
to it.

• Properties of steel are modified by adding suitable alloying elements. Some

alloying elements dissolve in ferrite. Some elements combine with carbon and
form carbides.

• Hence alloying elements are classified as follows:

• Group 1: Alloying elements which dissolve in ferrite.

• Group 2: Alloying elements which combine with carbon to form carbides.

Effect of alloying elements which dissolve in
ferrite :
• Elements like Nickel, Aluminium, Silicon, Copper and Cobalt dissolve
in ferrite.

• In the absence of carbon, elements of group 2 will dissolve in ferrite.

Any alloying element which dissolve in ferrite increases the hardness
and strength.
 Effect of alloying elements
which combine with carbon and
form carbides
• If there is a good amount of carbon in steel, some alloying elements will combine with
carbon and form carbides.

• Manganese, Chromium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Molybdenum and Titanium combine

with carbon and form the respective carbides.

• These carbides are hard and brittle. So they give hardness and wear resistance to steel.

• The amount of hardness depends upon the amount, size and distribution of these hard
carbides.
 The effects of different alloying elements in
steel:
Alloying Element Common % Added Effects on Steel Typical Applications
- Increases strength & toughness - Case hardening steel
- Refines grains - Corrosion-resistant steel
2–5%, 12–20%, up - Improves corrosion resistance - INVAR steel (36% Ni) for
Nickel (Ni)
to 36% - Reduces thermal expansion measuring devices
- Heat treatable
- Graphitiser (does not form carbides)
- Increases hardness & hardenability - Stainless steels
- Improves corrosion & oxidation - Tool steels
resistance - High-temperature
Chromium (Cr) 2–25% - Forms hard carbides applications
- Gives wear resistance
- Promotes grain growth (risk of
brittleness)
Alloying Element Common % Added Effects on Steel Typical Applications
- Acts as deoxidiser - Plain carbon steels
- Combines with sulfur to prevent - High Mn steels for dies
brittleness and wear parts
Manganese (Mn) 0.25–0.40%, up to 14% - Increases hardenability
- Wear resistance at high %

- Deoxidiser - Springs
- Increases strength & elastic limit - Electrical steels
- Maintains ductility
Silicon (Si) >0.6%, up to 2% - Improves electrical & magnetic
properties

- Tool steels
- Forms hard, stable carbides - High Speed Steels (HSS)
- Increases hardness & red - Cutting tools (drills, taps,
Tungsten (W) Up to 18% hardness etc.)
- Grain refining
- Reduces decarburisation
Alloying Element Common % Added Effects on Steel Typical Applications
- Strong carbide former - Hot forging dies
- Increases strength, red - HSS as substitute for
hardness & creep tungsten
Up to 0.3% (more in tool strength - Stainless steels
Molybdenum (Mo)
steels) - Improves wear &
corrosion resistance
- Grain refinement

- Forms stable carbides - Cutting tools

- Excellent grain refiner - Gas-free steel ingots
- Increases wear - High Speed Steels
Vanadium (V) ~0.1%–1% resistance, strength & red
hardness
- Combines with O₂ & N₂
(cleansing action)

- Retains hardness at high - High-performance

temperature cutting tools
- Improves corrosion - Super alloys
Cobalt (Co) Varies (with Cr, Ni, Mo) resistance
- Decreases hardenability
- Very costly
 COMMON ALLOY STEELS – NICKEL ALLOY STEELS
Composition Properties Applications
• Withstands alternate 1% Nickel Steel: Crankshafts, axles,
stresses, impact, and shock connecting rods (automobile parts)
loads 3% Nickel Steel: Crown wheels,
• Suitable for case hardening gudgeon pins, differential pinions,
1% to 5% Nickel in • Improved toughness and camshafts (usually carburised, oil
steel wear resistance quenched, and water hardened)
5% Nickel Steel: Bevel gears,
gearboxes, worm gear shafts, high-
pressure boiler plates, military vehicle
plates
• Very tough • IC engine valves
20% to 30% Nickel in • High tensile strength • Turbine blades
steel • Non-corrodable • Electrical wires
• Non-magnetic
• Very low coefficient of Clock pendulums, Measuring
30% to 40% Nickel thermal expansion standards, Measuring tapes, Scientific
Invar steel: 36% Nickel • Invar steel has almost zero instruments
thermal expansion Watch parts, Lining for steel tanks
• Coefficient of thermal TV tubes, Electronic valves and bulbs,
expansion is nearly zero Communication equipment, High-
40% to 50% Nickel in
• Good thermal stability temperature thermostats, Metal-to-
steel
• Compatible for sealing with glass sealing
glass
Nickel Alloys
 Chromium Steels
Composition Properties Applications
0.65% Cr, 0.6% C - Best suited for case hardening - Blacksmith tools
- Tough core and wear-resistant - Chisels
surface - Swages
- Forging dies
- Spring collets
- Lathe centres
- Springs, gears, bolts
1% Cr - Good wear resistance and - Agricultural machine parts
toughness - Machine tool components
- Concrete mixer drums
- Axles, spanners, gears
1.5% Cr, 1% C - Very high hardness and wear - Ball & roller bearings
resistance - Crushing machinery
- Pivots & spindles
- Cams, rolls
2–4% Cr, 1% C - Excellent magnetic properties - Permanent magnets
14% Cr, 0.05% C - Non-hardening type - Domestic articles: forks, knives, spoons
(Stainless Iron) - Corrosion resistant
- Pressable & drawable
 Composition Properties Applications

13% Cr - Heat-treatable - Turbine blades

- Corrosion resistant - Rivets
- Split pins
- Structural & ornamental
works

12% Cr, 2% C - Very hard and wear- - Blanking punches

resistant - Shear blades
- Dies
- Hobs
- Thread rolling dies

Up to 25% Cr - Excellent corrosion - Chemical industry

resistance (thin oxide layer) - Food containers
- Non-hardening type - Refrigerator parts
 Manganese Alloy Steels
Composition Properties Applications
1.5% Mn, 0.25% C - Fine grains - Automobile axles
- Good toughness and - Spline shafts
strength - Gears
- Oil quenched at 860°C and - Crank shafts
tempered - Connecting rods
- Rifle barrels
1.5% Mn, 0.35% C - General-purpose - General engineering
- Low cost purposes
- Oil hardened at 800°C
- Tempered & air cooled
- High tensile strength
2% Mn, 1% C - High hardness - Plug gauges
- Wear resistance - Thread gauges
- Precision gauges
- Blanking dies
- Reamers
- Taps
- Cams
 Composition Properties Applications

12.5% Mn, 1.5% C • High strength and - Stone crushing tools

ductility - Railway points

• Excellent wear resistance - Dredger buckets

• Very tough core - Safe vaults

• Non-magnetic - Bulletproof helmets

• Hard case

14% Mn, 0.6% C, 2% Cr • Enhanced toughness - Nuclear reactors

(Chromium added)

• Withstands extreme

conditions
 SILICON ALLOYS
Composition Properties Applications

General Silicon Steel - Strength and fatigue Base material for electrical
> 0.6% Silicon resistance and structural purposes
- Corrosion resistance at
high temperature

Navy Steel - High strength Shipbuilding industry

1–2% Silicon - Good resistance to marine
environment

Magnetic Silicon Steel - Excellent magnetic Transformer cores, poles of

~3% Silicon properties electrical machines
- Corrosion resistant

Silicon-Manganese Steel - Very high strength Coil springs, leaf springs,

 Molybdenum Steels
Composition Properties Applications
Molybdenum + Low Carbon - Carburized Transmission gears, spline
- High wear resistance (case) shafts
- High toughness (core)
- Good hardenability
Molybdenum + High Carbon - High strength Automobile coil and leaf springs
- High hardness
Chromium-Molybdenum - Good ductility and Weldability Aircraft structural parts,
Steel - Easily hardened and machined pressure vessels, stub axles,
- Free from temper brittleness die-casting dies, crankshafts,
connecting rods
Nickel + Molybdenum - High strength and ductility Transmission gears, shafts,
- Deep hardening bearings, chain pins, crusher
- Good machinability parts, rods for well boring
- High fatigue strength and
toughness
0.75% Ni + 0.5% Cr + 0.2% - Very high tensile strength (up to Automobile parts, general
Mo 1000 N/mm²) engineering components
requiring high strength
1.5% Ni + 1.0% Cr + 0.3% - Excellent fatigue and shock Differential shafts, crankshafts,
Mo resistance stressed parts, machine tool
- Can be case hardened by and auto gears
cyaniding
 Vanadium Steels
Type of Vanadium
Composition Properties Applications
Steel
Plain Vanadium Steel 0.25% Vanadium - Good hardness Cold drawing, coining,
- Wear resistance embossing dies
Low Carbon Chromium: 0.1– - Suitable for case Crankshafts, crank
Chromium-Vanadium 1.1% hardening pins
Steel Carbon: ~0.25%
Vanadium: 0.25%
Medium Carbon Chromium: 0.1– - High toughness & Axles, springs
Chromium-Vanadium 1.1% strength
Steel Carbon: ~0.30%
Vanadium: 0.25%
High Carbon Chromium: 0.1– - High hardness Bearings
Chromium-Vanadium 1.1% - Excellent wear
Steel Carbon: ~0.35% resistance
Vanadium: 0.25%
Chromium-Vanadium- Chromium + - Increased strength
Extrusion dies, die
Molybdenum Steel Vanadium + - High wear
casting dies
Molybdenum resistance
High Carbon High Carbon: 1.6% - Very high hardness Precision press tools,
 Cobalt Steels
Type of Cobalt
Composition Properties Applications
Steel

General Cobalt Cobalt (with - Retains hardness at high High-speed

Alloy Steel Chromium, temperature cutting tools,
Nickel, - High heat resistance permanent
Molybdenum) - Very costly magnets

High Cobalt Steel High % Cobalt - Strong magnetic Permanent

properties magnets

Maraging Steel 18% Nickel, 8– - High strength (up to 2400 Aerospace parts,
12% Cobalt, 3–5% N/mm²) helicopter shafts,
Molybdenum + - Tough martensite pressure vessels,
Titanium, - Age-hardened rapid-fire gun
Aluminium, - Weldable barrels, extrusion
Carbon - Heat treatable rams, dies
- Suitable for nitriding
 HIGH SPEED STEEL (HSS)
• INTRODUCTION
• During high-speed metal cutting, large heat is generated.
• High carbon steels lose hardness at high temperatures.
• High Speed Steel (HSS) is developed to withstand high heat and maintain
hardness — known as red hardness.
• HSS tools retain sharpness and wear resistance even at elevated
temperatures.
• Commonly used for:
• Cutting tools
• Extrusion dies
• Burnishing tools
• Blanking and punching dies
 HIGH SPEED STEEL (HSS)
• COMPOSITION OF HSS
• Carbon: 0.7% to 1.0%
• Manganese: ~0.25%
• Silicon: ~0.25%
• Tungsten, Molybdenum, Chromium, Vanadium, Cobalt –
main alloying elements (in varying %)
• FUNCTIONS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
Element Function
Tungsten Increases hot hardness and wear resistance
Chromium Increases hardness and corrosion resistance
Maintains cutting edge sharpness; increases wear
Vanadium
resistance
Cobalt Improves red hardness (hot hardness)
 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF HSS
1. Very good red hardness (up to 650°C)
2. Reasonable shock resistance (toughness)
3. Non-deforming properties
4. Good hardenability
5. Good wear resistance
6. Hardness after heat treatment: 62–66 HRC
TYPES OF HIGH SPEED STEELS
1. Tungsten HSS (18:4:1 HSS)
• Composition: 18% Tungsten, 4% Chromium, 1% Vanadium and 0.7% Carbon
• Properties:
• Best all-purpose tool steel
• High red hardness and wear resistance
• Hardness: Up to Rc 65 (75 mm depth)
• Vanadium can be increased to 3%, and carbon up to 1% for higher wear
resistance.
• Applications:
• Lathe, planer, shaper tools
• Milling cutters, gear cutters, hobs
• Reamers, broaches, taps, dies, drills, hacksaws
TYPES OF HIGH SPEED STEELS
2. Molybdenum HSS

• Main elements: 3–9% Molybdenum, 1.5–6% Tungsten, 4% Chromium, 1–

6% Vanadium

• Properties:
• Molybdenum replaces Tungsten → Cost-effective

• High toughness and cutting ability

• Disadvantage: Decarburisation during heat treatment

• Applications: Used for all types of cutting tools

 TYPES OF HIGH SPEED STEELS
3. Cobalt HSS (Super HSS)
• Composition: Contains 5–12% Cobalt (added to Tungsten or Molybdenum HSS)
• Properties:
• Improves hot hardness and wear resistance
• Slightly reduces toughness
• Best for cutting hard materials and extra-heavy-duty cutting
• Applications:
• Lathe, planer, shaper tools
• Milling cutters, hobs, broaches, drills
4. Vanadium HSS
• Composition: Contains 1–5% Vanadium along with Tungsten and Chromium
• Properties:
• High vanadium → increases abrasive resistance
• Suitable for high finish, high accuracy form tools
• Applications:
• Turning, milling, shaping tools for hard materials
STAINLESS STEEL -
INTRODUCTION
• Stainless steel is highly resistant to corrosion and rust.
• This property comes from the thin transparent oxide film formed on
its surface.
• The film is formed due to the presence of chromium or nickel as
alloying elements.
• This oxide film acts as a protective barrier against moisture, air, and
chemical reactions.
• Because this film prevents rust and stains, the steel remains clean and
"stainless".
COMPOSITION
• Base metal: Low carbon steel
• Main alloying element: Chromium (minimum ~10.5%, often more)
• Other elements:
• Chromium: 4–6% (can go up to 25% for high-grade stainless steel)
• Nickel: Up to 10% (improves corrosion resistance and toughness)
• Silicon: up to 0.8% (improves oxidation resistance)
• Molybdenum: up to 0.5% (enhances corrosion resistance, especially against
chlorides)
• Carbon: Kept low (to avoid carbide precipitation)
PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS
STEEL
• High Strength – Can withstand stress and load without deformation.
• Excellent Corrosion Resistance – Resists rust, stains, and chemical damage.
• High Ductility and Malleability – Can be stretched or shaped without
breaking.
• Attractive Appearance – Has a bright, shiny finish, ideal for decorative uses.
• High Heat Resistance – Maintains strength and stability at elevated
temperatures.
• Good Abrasive Resistance – Resists wear due to friction or rubbing.
• High Hardness and Toughness – Combines both strength and resistance to
impact.
CLASSIFICATION OF STAINLESS STEELS
(BASED ON MICROSTRUCTURE)
• Austenitic Stainless Steel
• Martensitic Stainless Steel
• Ferritic Stainless Steel
Austenitic Stainless Steel
• Composition:
• Chromium: 15–20%
• Nickel: 7–10%
• Most common grade: 18/8 Stainless Steel → 18% Cr + 8% Ni
• Properties:
• Non-magnetic in nature.
• Cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
• Excellent corrosion resistance, especially against acids and bases.
• Can be cold worked and hot worked.
• Capable of being drawn into wires, rolled into sheets.
• Has high electrical resistance and low thermal conductivity.
• Difficult to machine, but weldable and formable.
• Can be polished to a mirror finish, suitable for decorative and hygienic uses.
Applications:
• Kitchen utensils
• Sinks
• Architectural panels
• Food processing equipment
• Chemical tanks
 Martensitic Stainless Steel
• Composition:
• Straight chromium steel, contains about 12–15% Chromium.
• No Nickel or very low amounts.
• Properties:
• It Can be hardened by heat treatment.
• Magnetic and machinable.
• Tough and moderately corrosion-resistant (especially in mild environments).
• Cheaper than austenitic due to absence of Nickel.
• Applications:
• Cutlery (knives, scissors)
• Surgical and dental instruments
• Measuring tools
• Springs, fasteners (screws, nuts, bolts)
• Valves and pump components
 Ferritic Stainless Steel
• Composition:
• Another form of straight chromium steel, with up to 25% Chromium.
• No Nickel.
• Properties:
• It Cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
• Magnetic in nature.
• It Has excellent resistance to scaling and oxidation at high temperatures.
• Less corrosion-resistant than austenitic, but better than plain carbon steels.
• It Can be hot worked and forged, but not as strong as martensitic or austenitic grades.
• Applications:
• Boiler tubes and furnace parts
• Household appliances
• Automotive exhaust systems
• Chemical and food industry equipment
• Screws, nuts, bolts
Indian standard specifications
for alloy steel
• Alloy steels are specified by the percentage of carbon and the
percentage of other alloying elements.
• Examples:
• 20 Cr 18 Ni 25 Mn 25
• 15 Ni 13 Cr 1 Mo 12 G
Commercial Sizes and Shapes of
alloy steels
• Alloy steel products are commercially available in any of the following forms:
1. Forged product
• Bars, squares or flat cross sections
• These are available from 30 mm to 600 mm size and in 6 m length
• Die blocks, rings, discs are available in different sizes
2. Rolled product
• Rolled products are available in rounds and squares from 90 mm to 200 mm sizes
3. Sheets
• Hot rolled and cold rolled sheets are available in sizes varying from 1 mm to 15 mm
thickness, 100 mm to 1250 mm width and 2000 mm to 2500 mm lengths