CHAPTER 4

BIOENERGETICS
GRADE 11
MOTIA RAZA BIOLOGY TEACHER
 PHOSPHORYLATION
•
There are three types of phosphorylation found in living organisms:

• Photophosphorylation: This is the process where ATP is formed using the energy of light
(photon). It occurs in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts.
Equation: ADP + Pi + Energy of light → ATP

• Oxidative Phosphorylation: This type of phosphorylation occurs when ATP is formed by

using the energy of oxidation produced during metabolic reactions in the cell. It happens in the
cristae of mitochondria.
Equation: ADP + Pi + Energy of oxidation → ATP
 SUBSTRATE-LEVEL
PHOSPHORYLATION:
• This type of phosphorylation happens when one substrate
provides both phosphate and energy to another substrate. Under
cellular conditions, ATP formation requires 7.3 kcal/mole
energy, where Pi refers to phosphate from an inorganic source
like H₃PO₄. (Phosphoric Acid )Living organisms use two
processes to form ATP, namely photosynthesis and respiration.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Photosynthesis is a process in which light energy is
converted into chemical energy (ATP, NADPH₂) and then
into energy-rich organic food molecules like carbohydrates.
In simple terms, photosynthesis is a biochemical anabolic
process during which carbohydrates are synthesized from
carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water in the presence of light.
 ROLE OF LIGHT IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
•
Light is a form of energy that has dual nature: it behaves both as a wave and as a
particle. Light consists of packets of energy called quanta or photons. Plants use only a
small portion of visible light falling on their leaves, which is absorbed by the pigment
complex in chloroplasts. Each pigment has its own absorption spectrum.

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible light, which plants use for photosynthesis, falls between 400 and 700
nanometers on the electromagnetic spectrum. Within this range, plants absorb light
•most effectively in the blue and red regions, where chlorophyll
pigments show their absorption peaks at 430 nm and 670 nm,
respectively. The absorption spectra of chlorophyll and
carotenoids (another pigment) differ from each other, which
helps plants capture a wider range of light for photosynthesis.
 PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
•
When light hits a plant, it can be reflected, transmitted, or
absorbed. The substances in plants that absorb visible light are
called pigments. These pigments play a critical role in
converting light energy into chemical energy. The most
important pigments in photosynthesis are chlorophylls and
carotenoids.
 CHLOROPHYLL
•can be classified into different types: a, b, c, d, and e. The chemical formula
of chlorophyll-a is C₅₅H₇₂O₅N₄Mg, and for chlorophyll-b, it is
C₅₅H₇₀O₆N₄Mg. Chlorophyll molecules have two main parts: a flat,
square, light-absorbing hydrophilic head and a long hydrophobic
hydrocarbon tail. The head consists of a complex porphyrin ring made of
four pyrrole rings bonded to a magnesium ion (Mg), while the tail is made of
a long chain called phytol.

• Chlorophyll absorbs light mainly in the violet-blue and orange-red parts of

the visible spectrum, which is why plants appear green, as chlorophyll does
not absorb green, yellow, and indigo light very effectively.
 CAROTENOIDS
•
Carotenoids are pigments that appear yellow, red, or orange, and they
help absorb light in the blue-violet range. Carotenoids transfer the energy
they absorb to chlorophyll-b, which then transfers it to chlorophyll-a.
Carotenoids also protect chlorophyll molecules from damage caused by
excessive light by absorbing and dissipating the excess energy. In
humans, carotenoids play a protective role for the eyes.
 ROLE OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PIGMENTS IN ABSORPTION AND
CONVERSION OF LIGHT ENERGY
•
Each pigment in plants has its own absorption spectrum, which is why
different pigments absorb light at different wavelengths. For example,
chlorophyll-a does not absorb the light that chlorophyll-b absorbs and vice
versa. This increases the range of wavelengths that plants can absorb for
photosynthesis. All the accessory pigments (such as carotenoids and
chlorophyll-b) transfer the energy they absorb to chlorophyll-a, which then
uses that energy for the light reaction of photosynthesis.
 ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF
CHLOROPHYLL-A AND CHLOROPHYLL-B

•
Due to their structural differences, chlorophyll-a and
chlorophyll-b have different absorption spectra.
Chlorophyll-a absorbs light mainly in the violet-blue and
red parts of the spectrum (650–700 nm), while chlorophyll-
b absorbs mostly blue and yellow light (450–500 nm).
• Absorption Spectra of Chlorophyll-a, Chlorophyll-b, and β-
carotene
As shown in the graph, chlorophyll-a absorbs light most efficiently in
the red and blue-violet ranges, while chlorophyll-b absorbs more
efficiently in the blue and yellow regions. The absorption spectrum of
β-carotene, another important pigment, overlaps with the absorption
spectrum of chlorophylls but is mostly in the blue-violet region.
 ARRANGEMENT OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
IN PHOTOSYSTEM I AND PHOTOSYSTEM

•When light energy is absorbed by pigments, it is used for photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll and other pigment molecules are organized into two photosystems:
Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII). Each photosystem consists of
hundreds of chlorophyll molecules (including chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b)
and carotenoids.
•When light energy is absorbed by the antenna pigments in the photosystem, it is
transferred to a specific chlorophyll-a molecule at the reaction center. Here, the
energy is used to drive a chemical reaction that initiates photosynthesis. A
photosystem has two main parts:
• Antenna Complex: The light-gathering part of the
photosystem, where energy from light is absorbed by
pigment molecules.
• Reaction Center: This part contains one or more
molecules of chlorophyll-a that capture energy and
convert it into chemical energy
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION: CYCLIC
AND NON-CYCLIC
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
•

The light-dependent reaction is the first phase of

photosynthesis where light energy is captured and
converted into chemical energy. The energy is stored in
molecules like ATP and NADPH₂, which will later be used
to produce carbohydrates during the light-independent
phase of photosynthesis.
•In the chloroplast, the light-capturing chlorophyll molecules, membrane-bound
proteins, and electron carriers all together form the electron transport chain.
Four major groups of protein complexes are involved: Photosystem I (PSI),
Photosystem II (PSII), cytochrome b/f complex, and the ATPase complex.
•Mobile electron carriers, such as plastoquinone (PQ), plastocyanin, and
ferredoxin (Fd), transport excited electrons between these protein complexes.

• Photosystem I and II both contain special chlorophyll-a molecules at their

centers, which play a key role in capturing light energy for photosynthesis
 ROLE OF WATER

•Water plays an essential role in photosynthesis. It provides the hydrogen atoms

required for forming carbohydrates, while the oxygen atoms from water are released
as oxygen gas (O₂). In the 1930s, von Neill hypothesized that the oxygen released
during photosynthesis comes from water, not from carbon dioxide. This hypothesis
was later confirmed through experiments using isotopes.

• When plants were exposed to water labeled with oxygen-18 (O₁₈), it was found that
oxygen produced during photosynthesis came from the water, not the carbon
dioxide. This discovery showed that water is a raw material in photosynthesis, with
the hydrogen from water being used to reduce NADP to NADPH₂.
 ROLE OF CO₂
• CO₂ is another important raw material in photosynthesis. During
the light-independent phase of photosynthesis (the Calvin cycle),
CO₂ is fixed into a carbohydrate molecule, contributing to the
formation of glucose and other organic compounds. The process
begins when CO₂ enters the plant cells through the stomata and
dissolves in water absorbed by the mesophyll cells. This entry of
CO₂ into the leaves depends on the opening of the stomata.
ASSOCIATION WITH CHLOROPHYLL-A MOLECULES

•The change in the absorbing spectra is due to the molecules at

the reaction center of PS-I, which have maximum absorption at
700 nm, while those of PS-II absorb at 680 nm. These reaction
centers are called P700 and P680, where "P" simply stands for
pigment. These pigments are bound to chlorophyll proteins.
 SOLAR ENERGY

 HO, CO, Calvin Cycle Reactions, NDPA

 (a) Thylakoid membrane

• O, Fig 4.6: Light dependent reaction

 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAINS

• Step 1: Light hits Photosystem II (PS-II)

• P680, a special chlorophyll molecule in PS-II, absorbs light energy from
photons.
• This energy excites an electron in P680, making it jump to a higher energy
level.
• Step 2: Excited electron moves to the Primary Electron Acceptor
• The excited electron is quickly transferred to phaeophytin, the first electron
acceptor.
• From there, the electron moves to plastoquinone (PQ).
• Step 3: Water splitting to replenish electrons
• P680 loses an electron, so it needs to be recharged.
• The water-splitting complex (located on the thylakoid
membrane) splits water molecules into oxygen, protons
(H+), and electrons.
• 2 water molecules → 4 electrons, 4 protons, and 1 oxygen
molecule (O₂).
• These electrons are transferred to P680 to replace the lost one.
• Step 4: Electron transport to Cyt b/f complex
• The electron moves from plastoquinone (PQ) to the Cyt b/f complex.
• As PQ carries electrons, it also picks up protons (H+) from the stroma and
releases them into the thylakoid lumen.
• This proton movement helps create a proton gradient that will be used later
for ATP synthesis.
• Step 5: Electron passes to plastocyanin (PC)
• After passing through Cyt b/f, the electron is transferred to plastocyanin
(PC), a small copper-containing protein in the lumen.
• Step 6: Photosystem I (PS-I) receives the electron
• Plastocyanin donates the electron to PS-I, which has another
chlorophyll molecule, P700, that gets excited by light energy.
• The excited electron moves through a second electron transport
chain and ends up at ferredoxin (Fd), an iron-containing protein.
• Step 7: NADP+ reduction to NADPH
• Ferredoxin passes the electron to an enzyme called NADP
reductase.
• NADP reductase uses electrons and protons from the stroma to
reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
• This NADPH will be used later in the Calvin cycle to help build sugars.
 KEY TAKEAWAYS:

[Link] energy excites electrons in PS-II (P680).

[Link] splitting provides electrons to replenish PS-II.
[Link] (PQ) carries electrons to the Cyt b/f complex.
[Link] (PC) delivers electrons to PS-I.
[Link] end up reducing NADP+ to form NADPH.
• This whole process is powered by sunlight and creates NADPH and
ATP, which are then used to power the Calvin cycle (light-
independent reactions) to make sugars!
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN IN
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

•Location: Happens in the thylakoid membrane of

the chloroplast.
•Goal: Converts light energy into chemical energy
(ATP & NADPH).
•Starting Point: Light hits Photosystem II (PS-II),
exciting electron
 TEP-BY-STEP PROCESS OF ELECTRON
TRANSPORT IN PHOTOSYSTEM II

•Light Absorption:
•P680 (a chlorophyll molecule) absorbs light, exciting electrons.
•Electron Transport:
•Excited electrons move from P680 to a primary electron acceptor (phaeophytin).
•Electrons are passed to Plastoquinone (PQ), which carries them to Cytochrome
b/f complex.
•Water Splitting:
•Water molecules (H₂O) are split to replace lost electrons, releasing O₂, H+ ions,
and electrons.
 PHOTOSYSTEM I & NADPH
PRODUCTION

[Link] I (PS-I):
1. Plastocyanin (PC) transfers electrons to PS-I.
2. Electrons are passed to Ferredoxin (Fd), a protein that carries them to
NADP+ reductase.

[Link] Formation:
1. NADP+ reductase adds electrons and protons from the stroma to
reduce NADP+ to NADPH.
2. NADPH is used for sugar production in the Calvin Cycle.
FORMATION OF ATP (PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION):

• Step 1: Electron Transport & Hydrogen Ion Pumping

• Excited electrons from Photosystem II (P680) move through the
cytochrome system.
• As electrons move down the electron transport chain, some electron
carriers pump hydrogen ions (H+) from the stroma into the
thylakoid space (lumen).
• The thylakoid space builds up a high concentration of H+ ions,
creating an electrochemical gradient.
 STEP 2

• Water Splitting (Photolysis)

• Water molecules (H₂O) are split to replace the electrons lost from
P680.
• This splitting releases more hydrogen ions (H+) into the thylakoid
space and also produces oxygen (O₂).
 STEP 3

• Creating the Electrochemical Gradient

• The thylakoid space now has a high concentration of H+ ions,
while the stroma has a low concentration of H+.
• This difference in H+ concentration across the membrane creates a
gradient (like water in a dam ready to flow).
 STEP 4

• Chemiosmosis (ATP Synthesis)

• The H+ ions flow back into the stroma through a protein channel
called ATP synthase.
• As H+ ions pass through ATP synthase, their movement releases
energy.
• This energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate (P).
 STEP 5

• : ATP Formation
• It takes 3 H+ ions moving through ATP synthase to make 1 ATP.
• This process of making ATP using the energy from H+ flow is called
chemiosmosis.
 STEP 6: NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

• The entire process—where electrons flow from water to NADP+,

producing both ATP and NADPH—is called non-cyclic
photophosphorylation.
• In this pathway, electrons don’t return to their original source,
making it "non-cyclic."
 SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

• Electron Transport: Electrons move through the cytochrome

system, pumping H+ into the thylakoid space.
• Water Splitting: Water molecules release more H+ ions and oxygen.
• Chemiosmosis: H+ ions flow through ATP synthase, creating energy
to make ATP.
• Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation: The flow of electrons from
water to NADP+ with ATP and NADPH production.
 WHAT IS CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION?

• Cyclic photophosphorylation is a process where only ATP is

produced, without generating NADPH or releasing oxygen (O₂).
• This occurs when the demand for ATP is higher than the need for
NADPH, or when NADPH builds up in the cell.
 HOW DOES IT WORK?

[Link] Excitation in Photosystem I (PS-I):

1. Light excites electrons in P700 (a chlorophyll-a molecule in Photosystem I).

[Link] Transport Chain (ETC):

1. These excited electrons are passed through an electron transport chain (similar to
the one in the non-cyclic pathway).
2. As the electrons move through the chain, ATP is produced through chemiosmosis
(using the H+ gradient, like in non-cyclic photophosphorylation).

[Link] of Electrons to PS-I:

1. Instead of moving to NADP+, the electrons return to P700 in Photosystem I.
2. This is why it’s called cyclic—the electrons keep cycling through the system.
• Key Points of Cyclic Photophosphorylation:
• Only ATP is produced: No NADPH is made, and O₂ is not released.
• Only PS-I is involved: The electrons follow a shortcut and return to
the same Photosystem.
• Purpose: This process helps balance ATP and NADPH levels in the
cell, especially when there is an imbalance (too much NADPH or not
enough ATP).
 THE CALVIN CYCLE (LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION)

• Definition: The process where carbon dioxide is used to form

sugars.
• Key Points:
• Doesn’t need light energy directly.
• Requires ATP and NADPH from the light reactions.
• Forms triose phosphate (used for sugar production).
 STEPS OF THE CALVIN CYCLE

• Three Phases:
• Carboxylation: CO₂ is fixed with RuBP, forming 3-PGA.
• Reduction: 3-PGA is reduced using ATP and NADPH to form triose
phosphate.
• Regeneration: Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP to
continue the cycle.
 THE CALVIN CYCLE (SUMMARY)

• ATP and NADPH: Required for reduction and regeneration.

• Net Result: One triose sugar formed per cycle, which can be used
for:
• Hexose sugar formation
• Starch or sucrose production
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (FERMENTATION)

• Definition: Respiration without oxygen.

• Types:
• Lactic Acid Fermentation: Pyruvate → Lactic Acid (In muscles during
intense exercise).
• Alcoholic Fermentation: Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂ (In yeast).
 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (LACTIC ACID
FERMENTATION)

• Process:
• Pyruvate → Lactic Acid
• ATP produced: 2 ATP

• Occurs: In muscle cells during heavy exercise.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION (ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION)

• Anaerobic Respiration (Alcoholic Fermentation)

• Process:
• Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂
• ATP produced: 2 ATP

• Occurs: In yeast and some bacteria

•Definition: Respiration with oxygen.
•Key Process:
•Glucose is fully oxidized to produce CO₂, H₂O, and ATP.
•Happens in three stages: Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION (OXIDATION OF PYRUVATE)

• Process:
• Pyruvate → Acetyl-CoA + CO₂
• NADH produced: 2 NADH
• Occurs in the cytoplasm, then Acetyl-CoA enters mitochondria.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION (ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN)

• Process:
• NADH and FADH₂ transfer electrons through the electron transport
chain.
• This energy is used to produce ATP.
• ATP Production: In mitochondria via oxidative phosphorylation.
 KEY PLAYERS IN THE ELECTRON
TRANSPORT CHAIN

• Coenzyme Q: Transports electrons.

• Cytochromes: Proteins that transfer electrons.
• ATPase Complex: Produces ATP using energy from electrons.
 SUMMARY OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

• ATP Production: Main goal of cellular respiration.

• Anaerobic Respiration: 2 ATP produced (lactic acid/alcoholic
fermentation).
• Aerobic Respiration: Much more ATP produced through the
electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION OF FATS

• How Fats Are Used for Energy:

• Fats break down into glycerol and fatty acids.
• Glycerol is converted to 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (produced in
glycolysis).
• Fatty acids are converted into Acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs
Cycle.
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION OF PROTEINS

• How Proteins Are Used for Energy:

• Proteins are broken into amino acids.
• Deamination removes the amino group, forming ammonia (NH₃).
• The remaining carbon chain enters the Krebs Cycle.
 WHAT IS PHOTORESPIRATION?

• Definition: A process where plants oxidize sugar in the chloroplasts

without producing ATP.
• CO₂ is released, and O₂ is absorbed, similar to aerobic respiration.
• Occurs when RuBisCO uses oxygen instead of carbon dioxide.
 PHOTORESPIRATION PROCESS

• Reaction:
• RuBP + O₂ → RuBisCO → Glycolate + 3-PGA
• Glycolate moves to peroxisomes, where it is converted into glycine.
• Glycine moves to mitochondria, where 2 glycine molecules form serine
and release CO₂.
 DISADVANTAGES OF
PHOTORESPIRATION

• Why Photorespiration is Wasteful:

• No ATP or NADH produced.
• Uses up ATP and NADPH produced in light reactions.
• Leads to the consumption of carbohydrates, reducing plant growth by
up to 25%.
• CO₂ is released instead of being fixed.
WHY DOES PHOTORESPIRATION EXIST?

• Evolution of RuBisCO:
• RuBisCO evolved to bind both CO₂ and O₂.
• Early Earth had low oxygen, so RuBisCO only bound CO₂.
• As oxygen levels increased, RuBisCO started to bind oxygen, causing
photorespiration.
 CONCLUSION

• Photorespiration: A wasteful process that reduces plant growth but

is a result of the enzyme RuBisCO's evolution.
• Fat & Protein Metabolism: Fats and proteins can provide energy
through conversion into molecules that enter the Krebs Cycle