Bahir Dar University
Institute of Land Administration (ILA)
Chapter 2
Theory of Errors and Principles of Adjustment
1
The Concept of Error in Measurements
Making observations (measurements), and subsequent
computation and analyses using them, are
fundamental tasks of surveyors.
Good measurement require a combination of human
skill and mechanical equipment applied with utmost
judgment.
However, no matter how carefully made, observations
are never exact and will always contain errors.
2
Int. . . Cont’d
Survey results can never be exactly true for a number of
reasons.
Surveying equipment manufactured to a certain level of
precision.
Surveyors are trained to get the most out of their
instrumentation, but no observer can make perfect
measurements.
All survey measurements are subject to external factors, for
example all observed angles are subject to the effects of
refraction, and observed distances, whether EDM or tape,
will vary with temperature
3
The surveyor’s task
Should understand the different kind of errors, their
sources and expected magnitudes under varying
conditions, and their manner of propagation.
Then they can select instruments and procedures
necessary to reduce error sizes to within tolerable
limits.
Tolerance limit refers to the total allowable error in a
measurement. This is typically represented as a +/-
value off of a nominal specification.
Products can become deformed due to changes in
temperature and humidity, which lead to material
4
expansion and contraction, or due to improper feedback
from a process control device.
Type of observations
Direct: measurements by applying a tape to a line or turning an
angle with the total station instrument
Indirect: is secured when it is not possible to apply a
measuring instrument directly to the quantity to be observed.
The answers is therefore determine by its relationship to some
other observed value or values
Two common ways to achieve indirect measurement involve
(1) using a mirror on the ground and
(2) using shadow lengths and find an object's height.
Method 1 measures the person's height and the distances between the person,
mirror, and object.
Method 2 measures shadows and the person's height.
5
Error in measurements
Error is the difference between an observed
(measured) value for quantity and its true value, or
Mathematically,
E = X – Xt
However, the true value of a quantity is never known.
True value in this regard refers to ‘established’ value,
which can be obtained through repeated observations
or measurements
6
Accuracy and precision
Accuracy → how closely an observation comes to a
"true value”
Precision → how closely repeated measurements or
observations come to duplicating observed values.
Accurate → Close to true value
Precise → Close to each other
High precision doen’t guarantee good
accuracy
7
8
True and relative errors
True error = (Measured value – True value)
Relative error = (Measured value – True value) / Measured
value
9
Sources of Errors
Sources of error fall into three broad categories, namely:
(1) Natural errors caused by variation in or adverse
weather conditions, refraction, unmodelled gravity
effects, etc.
(2) Instrumental errors caused by imperfect construction
and adjustment of the surveying instruments used.
(3) Personal errors caused by the inability of the
individual to make exact observations due to the
limitations of human sight, touch and hearing
10
Classification of errors
Gross Error (Mistakes, Blunders)
Systematic Errors (Biases, cumulative errors)
Random Errors (compensating errors)
11
Mistakes (gross errors)
Blunders due to human mistakes, malfunctioning
instrument and wrong measurment methods.
Do not follow certain rule
Large in magnitude
Out lier detection method is required
12
Systematic errors
Follows certain physical or mathematical rules
Instrument, physical environment, human factor
Poor accuracy
Cumulative nature
13
Random errors
Stochastic error, random in nature
Caused by unknown and unpredictable human factors,
instrument errors, e.t.c
Poor precision
Difficult to detect but easier to remove since they are
statistical errors and can be removed by statistical
methods like averaging
14
Measurement Error (Observational Error)
Is the difference between a measured quantity and its
true value. It includes: -
Random error (naturally occurring errors that are to be
expected with any experiment) and
Systematic error (caused by a mis-calibrated instrument
that affects all measurements).
For example, let’s say you were measuring the weights
of 100 marathon athletes. The scale you use is 0.05kg
off: this is a systematic error that will result in all
athletes body weight calculations to be off by a kg.
15
16
How can measurement errors be reduced?
Double check all measurements for accuracy. For example,
double-enter all inputs on two worksheets and compare them.
Double check your formulas are correct.
Make sure observers and measurement takers are well
trained.
Make the measurement with the instrument that has the
highest precision.
Take the measurements under controlled conditions.
Pilot test your measuring instruments. For example, put
together a focus group and ask how easy or difficult the
questions were to understand.
Use multiple measures for the same construct.
17
Control Survey
A control survey is a survey stations whose
coordinates have to be precisely determined
The stations are reference monuments, to
which other survey work of a lesser quality
is extended.
A control survey needs to be precise,
complete, reliable and it must be possible to
show that these qualities have been
achieved.
Cont’d…
The areas covered by these points may
extend over a whole country or may be
relatively small, encompassing a
construction site.
Two types of control points: horizontal
and vertical points (X,Y and Z)
Control networks comprise a series of
points or positions joined each other
Cont’d…
The establishment of 2D or 3D control
networks is the most fundamental
operation in the surveying of large or
small areas of land.
Can be permanent or temporary points
Are spatially located for the purpose of
topographic surveying, for the control of
supplementary points, etc.
Reconnaissance
Is a vitally important part of any
survey project its purpose is to decide
the best location for the traverse points.
Successive points in the traverse must
be inter-visible to make observations
possible
Application of Control Survey
Establishment of cadastral map
For infrastructural construction works
The extension and densification of existing
control networks.
The areas covered by these points may
extend over a whole country and form the
basis for the national maps of that country
To detect land use land cover changes
Deformation analyses
Methods of Control Surveys
Traversing
Triangulation
Trilateration
Triangulateration
Satellite position fixing
Intersection
Resection
Trilateration
If the lengths of all sides were measured
without the angles, this technique would be
called trilateration
Triangulation
All the horizontal angles should be measured to the
required accuracy to give the network. At least one
side would need to be measured to give the scale or
size of the network.
Intersection
Intersection is done where unknown
point P is fixed and by measuring the
horizontal angles BAP and PBA
Resection
Is done by observing the horizontal
angles at P to at least three control
stations of known position. The
position of P may be obtained by a
mathematical solution
Global Positioning System - GPS
Satellites could be used to provide a
3D position either static or RTK
methods
Static on a fixed point
Real Time kinematics (TRK) using
base receiver and moving receiver
Traversing
The most common and simple method of locating control
points in engineering and construction survey
All the adjacent horizontal angles and distances are
measured to the accuracies
required.
Also minor or supplementary
control points a, b, c, d,
can be located with lesser
accuracy by means of
a link traverse.
Types of traversing
1. link traverse commence from the precisely
known coordinate point X and closing onto known
point Y.
X Y
2. Loop traverse: is a polygonal traverse
whose starting and ending points are on the
same known points
3. Open traverse which does not close into any
known point and therefore cannot provide any
indication of the magnitude of measuring errors.
In all surveying literature, this form of
traversing is not recommended due to the lack of
checks.
Sources of error in traversing
(1) Errors in the observation of horizontal
and vertical angles (angular error).
(2) Errors in the measurement of distance
(linear error).
(3) Errors in the accurate centring of the
instrument and targets, directly over the
survey point (centring error).
Coordinate Computation
Cartesian coordinate method : if the co- ordinate of
one station and the azimuth of the traverse legs are
known, the co- ordinate of the other traverse station
calculated with:
X co-ordinates of B = X co- ordinates of A + L sin θ
Y co-ordinates of B = Y co-ordinate of A + L cos θ