INF 110: Computer
Hardware
Lecture 3
Picking Your Processor
The Microprocessor
The microprocessor is a multifunction integrated
circuit that is, in essence, the computer.
A processor is a hardware piece found inside the
motherboard and its main function is to process
data and instructions into desirable output.
The processor, which is also called the central
processing unit (CPU), is made up of several
parts.
The CPU is also known as the brain of a computer
system.
It performs all major calculations and comparisons
It activates and controls the operations of other
units of a computer system
The Microprocessor
Processor speed
Processor speed is how fast a processor
executes its instructions or commands.
This speed was originally measured in millions
of hertz, or megahertz (MHz) per second.
A hertz is also known as a clock cycle, and a
processor can execute code at every clock cycle.
Thus, a processor operating at a measly 1 MHz
per second can execute one million tasks every
second.
Processors today now measure their speed in
gigahertz (GHz) per second.
A gigahertz is one billion clock cycles per
second - so the CPU can execute tasks a billion
times per second!
The components of the CPU
Control Unit ALU
PTU FPU
BIU MMU
Prefetch Unit Register
Control Unit (CU): Control unit controls the functions of the
CPU. It tells the other parts of the CPU how to operate, what
data to use, and where to put the results.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs all of
the calculations and comparative logic functions for the CPU,
including all add, subtract, divide, multiply, equal to, greater
than, less than, and other arithmetic and logic operations.
Protection Test Unit (PTU): This part of the CPU works with
the control unit to monitor whether or not functions are
carried out correctly. It is like the quality control department
of the CPU. If it detects something is not done properly, it
generates an error signal.
Floating Point Unit (FPU): The FPU goes by several other
names, including the math coprocessor, the numerical
processing unit (NPU), and the numerical data processor
(NDP). It handles all floating point operations for the ALU and
CU. Floating point operations involve arithmetic on numbers
with decimal places and high math operations like
trigonometry and logarithms.
Memory Management Unit (MMU): The MMU
handles the addressing and cataloging of where data
is stored in system memory. Whenever the CPU needs
something from memory, it requests it from the MMU.
The MMU manages memory segmentation and paging
allocations and translates all logical addressing into
physical addressing.
Bus Interface Unit (BIU): The BIU supervises the
transfer of data over the bus system between the
other components of the computer and the CPU. It
also serves as the interface point for the CPU and its
external bus, as well as handling all data transfers out
of the control unit.
The Prefetch Unit: This unit preloads the instruction
registers of the CPU with instructions from memory
whenever the BIU is idle. This allows the CPU to look
ahead at future instructions.
Decode Unit: It decodes incoming instructions to
their simplest form. While the prefetch unit
retrieving more instructions, this unit decodes
them to get them ready for the control unit.
Registers: Built into the CPU are a number of
holding areas and buffers that are used to
temporarily hold the data, addresses, and
instructions being passed around between the
CPU’s components.
CPU’s Bus System
Bus relates to the electronic pathways on the computer
and in the processor, it carries the various signals,
addresses, and data that are transferred around the
computer between its components.
On the computer, a bus structure is a group of electronic
transmission lines that connect the various components of
the CPU, motherboard, and expansion cards to each other.
Bus structures have different sizes, ranging from 16 to 64
bits on modern microprocessors, and their size determines
the amount of data that can be transmitted.
Obviously, a 64-bit bus carries more data than a 16-bit
bus.
Computer Bus Structure
Data bus: Carries information to and from the
CPU.
Address bus: Carries the address from where
data is to be read to where data is to be written.
Control bus: Carries the signals used by the
CPU and the other components of the computer
to communicate with each other, including when
data is ready to be read, when another device
wishes to use the bus, and the type of operation
to be performed (read, write, interrupt).
Understanding Processor Terminology
Cache memory
The processor accesses information that resides
in system memory, which is a slower process
than if the information is stored in the
processor’s own special high-speed memory,
known as cache memory.
Cache memory is integrated right into the
processor’s chip and is made up of static RAM
(SRAM).
The three types of cache memory are Level 1
(L1) cache, Level 2 (L2) cache, and Level 3 (L3)
cache.
MMX
Intel introduced a feature called MultiMedia
eXtensions, or MMX. MMX added 57 new
instructions that were built into the processor
and told the system how to work with audio,
video, and graphics.
If these instructions were not built into the
processor, the processor would have to
retrieve them from somewhere else.
Hyperthreading
Hyperthreading is a feature designed by Intel that was
placed in the Pentium processors.
Hyperthreading technology, or HTT, allows a processor
to logically act as two different processors by being
able to execute simultaneous threads.
A thread is a part of an application that executes at any
given time.
For a system to truly be able to take advantage of
multithreaded applications, you normally need a
system that has multiple processors -- one processor to
run one thread at a time.
With hyperthreading, one processor can run more
than one thread at a time, increasing performance by
15 to 30 percent.
Multicore
A multicore processor combines a number of
independent processors and the L1 cache from
those processors onto a single processor chip.
The benefit of a multicore processor is that it
can execute multiple threads at the same time
without hyperthreading because you essentially
have multiple processors in one chip package.
A huge benefit of being only one chip on the
motherboard is that the one multicore chip
draws less power than two separate processors
would.
A number of different flavors of multicore
processors are available today, such as dual-
core, triple-core, and quad-core processors.
Dual core: Has two cores in one chip package,
with each core typically having 128K of L1
cache and 512K of shared L2 cache.
Triple core: Has three cores in one chip
package with each core typically having 128K
of L1 cache. Most triple-core processors also
have 512K of L2 cache per core and share a
block of cache memory, known as L3 cache.
Quad core: Has four cores in one chip package
with each core typically having 128K of L1
cache. Most quad-core processors also have
512K of L2 cache per core and share a block of
L3 cache (2MB–6MB).
Virtualization support
One of the newest features to come from processors in recent
years is virtualization support.
Virtualization allows you to run multiple computers, known as
virtual machines (VMs), on one physical computer.
Each virtual machine runs a separate operating system with
virtual resources assigned to it such as CPUs, virtual hard
drives, and memory.
In order to use virtualization software with your system, your
processor must support it and virtualization must be enabled
in the BIOS.
If you have an Intel processor the virtualization feature is
called Intel VT (for Intel Virtualization Technology), but if
your processor is an AMD processor then the virtualization
feature you must enable is called AMD-V (for AMD
Virtualization).
To run virtualization software such as Microsoft’s Hyper-V,
you must have a processor that supports it and it must be
enabled in the system.
Architecture (32-bit or 64-bit)
When purchasing a system, you should always
investigate whether the system has a 32-bit
processor or a 64-bit processor.
The 64-bit processors are needed to run today’s 64-bit
operating systems and its software, and well
outperform the 32-bit systems.
32 –bit processor system handles 4 bytes or
characters at a time while 64 –bit processor system
handles 8 bytes or characters at a time.
32-bit processor can handle up to 4GB of memory,
having that much memory on a 32-bit processor will
not make it perform quicker, the optimal amount of
memory on a 32-bit processor is 1.5 - 3.25 GBs.
64-bit processor can handle up to 192 GB of memory
or RAM.
Types of Processor
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
Large instruction set
Variable-length instructions
Variety of addressing modes
Complex & expensive to produce
Mostly used in personal computers
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
Small instruction set
Fixed-length instructions
Reduced references to memory to retrieve operands
Mostly used in workstations
Types of Processor
EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction
Computing)
Mostly used in high-end servers and
workstations
Multi-Core Processor
Processor chip has multiple cooler-running,
more energy efficient processing cores
Improve overall performance by handling more
work in parallel can share architectural
Mostly used in high-end servers and
workstations
Integrated GPU
New processors today may have an integrated
graphics processing unit (GPU), which would take
care of the video calculations and processing for the
system.
If the processor does not have an integrated GPU and
you need to run heavy graphics applications, you will
most likely need to purchase a video card with a
dedicated GPU in it.
One of the downfalls of using an integrated GPU is that
it will use system RAM as its memory, while a
dedicated GPU is an expansion card that has the GPU
and its own memory for video processing.
Remember that the CPU performs arithmetic and logical
operations, the NPU performs complex mathematical
calculations, and the GPU takes care of video operations.
Execute Disable Bit (EDB)
Execute Disable Bit (EDB) is a security
feature that allows the processor to flag different
areas of memory that are, and are not, allowed to
run code.
This is a great security feature as it is a method
to help prevent buffer overflow attacks.
Buffer overflow attacks are when the hacker
submits code to areas of memory in order to run
that code.
To take advantage of EDB you must have a
processor that supports it, and you must enable it
in the BIOS/UEFI.
Throttling
Throttling is a feature built into a lot of newer
processors today and it involves the CPU sensing
when it is going to overheat and then reducing
its speed to lower the heat to an acceptable
range.
Processors that support throttling have a built-in
thermal sensor (a high-tech thermometer)
that monitors the temperature of the processor.
When the processor detects that it is going to
overheat — maybe, because of a fan failure —
the processor drops its speed so that the
temperature drops to an acceptable range.
Overclocking
Overclocking is a feature that involves running a
piece of hardware faster than the speed at which
it is rated.
A number of devices can be overclocked, such as
video adapters and processors.
Although you might be able to overclock the
processor, it is not recommended because
overclocking can result in an unstable system or
even hardware failure.
VRM
The voltage regulator module (VRM) is responsible
for regulating the voltage that is delivered to the
processor.
The VRM is located on the motherboard (or appears as
its own device in the system) and provides the correct
running voltage to the processor.
Some VRMs use a jumper on the motherboard to
determine how much voltage is supplied to the
processor, and other VRMs sense what the processor
needs on startup.
Typically, VRMs on the motherboard sense what voltage
the processor needs and then supply that voltage.
Chip packaging
Chip packaging refers to how the chip is
constructed and delivered to the consumer.
The chip package defines the appearance or
form factor of the chip.
Dual inline package (DIP) chip: A rectangular
chip with two rows of 20 pins. Pin 1 is located at
the end of the chip that has a square notch carved
into it.
Pin grid array (PGA) chip: One of the most
popular processor chip packages in use today, the
PGA chip is a square chip with an array of pins
filling up the shape of the chip. In general, the PGA
chip uses hundreds of pins.
Chip packaging
Land grid array (LGA) chip: Similar to PGA is
the LGA, which has a rectangular packaging style
and contacts instead of pins on the bottom
side of the chip. These contacts make a
connection to the contacts within the LGA socket
on the motherboard when the processor is placed
in the LGA socket.
Single Edge Contact (SEC) chip: SEC chip is
implemented as a card that is inserted into a slot
on the motherboard. It is important to note that
both SEC and SEC2 chips are inserted into a slot
and not a socket.
Processor Socket Types and Slots
Socket Types: Socket 0, Socket 1, Socket 2, …
Socket 8, Socket 370 etc.
Slot Types: Slot 1, Slot 2, Slot A, Slot M etc
Examples of Processor
INTEL PROCESSORS:
PENTIUM PROCESSORS: Pentium, Pentium II,
Pentium III, Pentium IV, Pentium Pro, Celeron, Xeon,
Itanium and Itanium II, Pentium M.
INTEL CORE 2:
Intel designed the Intel Core 2 to be its 64-bit,
multicore processor. The Core 2 comes in three
flavors:
Core 2 Solo: Single-core processor
Core 2 Duo: Dual-core processor on the one chip
Core 2 Quad: Actually two chips, with two cores
per chip, packaged in a multichip module.
Examples of Processor
INTEL PROCESSORS:
INTEL ATOM
Intel has created a processor to run on the now-
popular Netbooks. A Netbook is a laptop-like
computer -but much smaller -that is used primarily
for Internet usage.
Intel Core i3/i5/i7 processors
Intel has created a family of processors to satisfy
lightweight system use or heavy system use that
needs a powerful processor. The following are three
common Intel processors found in new systems
today:
Examples of Processor
INTEL PROCESSORS:
Intel Core i3: The Intel Core i3 processor is the least
powerful of the three processors and ships with an
integrated GPU and two processor cores. The i3
typically has a 64KB L1 cache, 256KB of L2 per core, and
a shared block of L3 cache of approximately 3MB.
Intel Core i5: The Intel Core i5 is the next step up with
similar specs but with more power. The i5 processor can
contain between two and four processor cores, with
L3 cache memory ranging from 3MB to 8MB.
Intel Core i7: Intel’s highest-level processor is the Intel
Core i7, which ships in different flavors as well.
Depending on the model, the i7 ships with four or eight
cores and an L3 cache ranging from 6MB to 12MB.
The Intel Core i3, Intel Core i5, and Intel Core i7
processors are on their 6th generation now.
Non-Intel Chips
AMD PROCESSORS:
K6
K6-2
K6-III
ATHLON
ATHLON-XP
DURON
OPTERON
ATHLON 64 AND ATHLON 64 X2
PHENOM AND PHENOM II
TURION 64 AND TURION 64 X2
Installing a Processor
To install a processor, there are certain installation
decisions you have to be aware of before actually
attempting to install the processor:
Will it fit in the socket?
The first thing you need to verify before you
purchase a new processor for your system is
what socket type or slot type you have on
your motherboard.
How many pins the socket has because some
processors support a few differently sized sockets.
For example, Intel makes both Socket 423 and
Socket 478 versions of the Pentium 4, so make
sure you get the correct version of the Pentium 4
for your socket
Installing a Processor
CPU voltage and transistor integration:
Another important CPU characteristic that you have to
watch for when upgrading your processor is the
voltage the processor requires.
Voltage is the power that the processor draws from
the main motherboard, which the motherboard
receives originally from the power supply.
A processor is designed to run at a certain
voltage.
You need to ensure that the motherboard you are
placing the processor into provides that voltage.
If a motherboard supports more than one
voltage, you can typically change a jumper on the
motherboard, which will then control the voltage used
by the processor.
Installing a Processor
Performing the installation:
After you verify that your new processor will work
with your motherboard, you are ready to install
the processor.
To install the processor, first remove the existing one
by pulling up on the lever on the ZIF socket.
When you pull the lever on the ZIF socket, the
existing processor should rise out of the socket a bit.
With the processor a bit out of the socket, you can
then gently lift out the processor.
Be sure to lift the processor straight up so that you
do not bend any of the pins.
You can then install the new processor by first
finding out where pin 1 is on the processor chip.
Installing a Processor
Performing the installation:
Pin 1 is located in one of the corners of the chip and
is usually indicated with a gold line marked on
the bottom of the chip that contains the pins.
If you do not see a line indicating where pin 1 is,
you will notice that one of the corners of the square
PGA is cut off - this corner is pin 1.
After you match up pin 1 on the PGA chip with pin 1
on the ZIF socket, carefully place the processor into
the socket and then push the lever down to lock it
in place.
Just lay the chip into the socket; don’t push it in.
The whole point of a zero insertion force socket is
that you don’t have to risk damaging the pins by
applying pressure.
Keeping a Processor Cool
After you have the processor in the processor
socket, you need to install something to keep it
cool, such as a heat sink or fan — or maybe even
both.
Processors are made up of thousands, even
millions, of transistors.
A transistor acts as a switch, permitting or
prohibiting the flow of electrical current.
A processor contains millions of transistors that
each hold an electrical charge, causing the
processor to run at very high temperatures.
Therefore, it is important to keep the processor
cool. The most common cooling mechanisms today
are heat sinks and CPU fans, which are
sometimes used in tandem.
Keeping a Processor Cool
A number of other cooling devices are on the market today,
and they are a little more expensive than your typical heat
sink or CPU fan. The following are other cooling
techniques you may find in systems today:
Liquid-based cooling
Temperature sensors
Thermal paste
Fanless/passive
Heat pipes
Heat sinks are a group of metal pins placed on the chip to
draw heat away from it.
A cooling fan is a small fan placed on top of the processor
to pull away hot air, helping to keep the processor cool.
The term passive heat sink is used for a heat sink that
does not use a fan on top, and the term active heat sink
is used for a heat sink with a fan on top.