Micro-Manufacturing

Micro manufacturing encompasses

many different technologies that
can produce small parts with fine
features. The “micro” in all of these
manufacturing methods refers to
their ability to produce 0.5mm to
2mm objects with a resolution of
5µm to 20µm. Examples of micro
manufactured devices include
mechanical gears, fiber optic
Machining

• Machining is a broad term

to describe removal of
material from a
workpiece.
• Machining categories:
– Cutting involves single-point or
multipoint cutting tools,
each with a clearly defined
geometry.
– Abrasive processes, such as
grinding.
– Nontraditional machining,
Traditional vs.
Nontraditional
• Primary source of energy
– Traditional: mechanical.
– Nontraditional: electrical, chemical, optical
• Primary method of material removal
– Traditional: shearing
– Nontraditional: does not use shearing (e.g., abrasive
water jet cutting uses
Why Nontraditional
Machining?
• Situations where traditional machining
processes are unsatisfactory or uneconomical:
– Workpiece material is too hard, strong, or tough.
– Workpiece is too flexible to resist cutting forces or too
difficult to clamp.
– Part shape is very complex with internal or external
profiles or small holes.
– Requirements for surface finish and tolerances are
very high.
– Temperature rise or residual stresses are
undesirable or unacceptable.
Nontraditional Machining
Types
• Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
• Water-Jet Machining &
Abrasive-Jet Machining
• Chemical Machining
• Electrochemical Machining
(ECM)
• Electrical-Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• High-Energy-Beam Machining
– Laser-beam machining (LBM)
– Electron-beam machining (EBM)
 Chemical Milling
• Controlled chemical
dissolution of workpiece by
contact with a strong
reagent.
• Special coating (Maskants)- Protect
areas from which the metal is not
to be removed.
• Used to produce pockets and
contours.
• Used to remove materials
 Steps followed in CHM
• Preparing and precleaning
• Masking
• Scribing of the mask
• Workpiece is then etched and
rinsed (mask selection depends on
size of the workpiece, number of
parts to be made, desired
resolution)
• Mask removing
CHM Setup
 Etch Factor
• It is the ratio of the undercut (d)
to the depth of etch (T)
• Must be considered when
scribing the mask using
templates
Contours through CHM
Tapers through CHM
 Tooling for CHM
• Tooling is relatively inexpensive
and simple to modify

Types of Tools
1. Maskants
2. Etchants
3. Scribing templates
4. Accessories
 Maskants
• Protect parts of the workpiece
where CD action is not needed
• Materials - Synthetic or rubber
base
• Multiple coats increases the
etchant resistance and avoid
the formation of pinholes on the
machined surfaces
• Applying Method - Dip, brush, spray,
roller, and electrocoating as well as
 Properties of Maskant
1. Be tough enough to withstand
handling
2. Adhere well to the workpiece surface
3. Scribe easily
4. Be inert to the chemical reagent
used
5. Be able to withstand the heat
generated by etching
6. Be removed easily and
inexpensively after etching
 Etchants
• Acid or alkaline solutions maintained within a controlled
range of chemical composition and temperature.
• Technical goals to achieve are
1. Good surface finish
2. Uniformity of metal removal
3. Control of selective and intergranular attack
4. Control of hydrogen absorption in the case of titanium alloys
5. Maintenance of personal safety
[Link] price and reliability for the materials to be
used in the construction of the process tank
[Link] of air quality and avoidance of possible
environmental Problems
8. Low cost per unit weight dissolved
[Link] to regenerate the etchant solution and/or readily
neutralize and dispose of its waste products
Maskants & Etchants for
Different Materials
Scribing templates
• Used to define the areas for
exposure
to the chemical machining action
• Common method is to cut the mask
with a sharp knife followed by
careful peeling of the mask from
the selected areas
• Etch factor allowance must be
included
• Degree of undercutting is to
Accessories
• Accessories include tanks,
hooks, brackets, racks, and
fixtures.
• These are used for single- or-
multiple- piece handling into and
out of the etchants and rinses
 Process parameters
• It includes the reagent solution
type, concentration, properties,
mixing, operating temperature,
and circulation.

Parameters which have direct

impacts
1. Etch factor (d/T )
2. Etching and machining rate
3. Production tolerance
 Advantag
• es is possible on
Weight reduction
complex contours that are difficult to
machine using conventional
methods.
• Simultaneous material removal, from
all surfaces, improves productivity and
reduces wrapping.
• No burrs are formed.
• No stress is introduced to the workpiece,
which minimizes the part distortion and
makes machining of delicate parts
possible
 Advantag
• estaper on contoured
A continuous
sections is achievable.
• The capital cost of equipment, used for
machining large components, is
relatively low
• Design changes can be implemented
quickly
• A less skilled operator is needed
• Tooling costs are minor.
• Good surface quality in addition
to the absence of burrs
 Limitati
• Only oncuts are
shallow practical:up
to
12.27 mm for sheets and plates,
• 3.83 mm on extrusions, and 6.39
mm on forgings.
• Handling and disposal of chemicals
can be troublesome.
• Hand masking, scribing, and
stripping can be time-consuming,
repetitive,and tedious.
 Limitati
• Metallurgical on
homogeneous
surfaces are required for best
results.
• Deep narrow cuts are difficult to
produce.
• Fillet radii are fixed by the depth of
cut.
• Porous castings yield uneven
etched surfaces.
• Welded areas frequently etch at
rates that differ from the base metal.
 Applicati
• on
Common metals, exotic metals such
as titanium, molybdenum, and
zirconium and non metallic
materials such as glass, ceramics,
and some plastics can be processed.
• Shallow cuts in large thin sheets are
most popular application
• Multiple designs can be machined
from the same sheet at the same
time
 Electrochemical Machining
• Removal of workpiece
atoms by electrochemical
dissolution
• First patent on ECM in 1929
• Works on principles of
Faraday (1833)
• From 1950 significant development
occurred when the process was
used for machining high-strength
 Principles of electrolysis
• Electrolysis occurs when an electric
current passes between two electrodes
dipped into an electrolyte solution
• System of the electrodes and the
electrolyte is referred to as the
electrolytic cell
• Electrochemical Dissolution of Anodic
workpiece forms the basis for ECM of
metals
• Amount of metal dissolved
( removed or machined) or
ECM equipment
ECM system
components
Electrolytes and Machining
Rates
Modes of electrolyte
feeding
Process parameter
affecting ECM
 Advantages
• No tool wear
• Machining is done at low voltages
• Very small dimensions up to 0.05 mm
can be controlled
• Complicated profiles can be machined
easily in a single operation
• No thermal damage
• Surface finish can be maintained at 0.1
to
1.25 μm Ra
• ECM is only suitable for mass
 Disadvantages
• Energy consumption is more
• MRR is slow
• Only for electrically conductive
workpiece
• Difficulties with handling and
containing the electrolyte
• Can’t produce sharp internal or
external edges
• Workpiece needs to be cleaned and
 Electrochemical Drilling
• Tubular electrode is used as the cathodic tool
• Electrolyte is pumpedfrom the center of the
tool and exits through the side-machining gap
Electric Discharge Machining
-EDM
 Metal removal Mechanism
The removal of material is based upon
the electro discharge erosion(EDE) effect of
electric sparks occurring between two
electrodes that are separated by a dielectric
liquid
 A series of voltage pulses of magnitude
about 20 to 120 V and frequency on the
order of 5 kHz is applied between the two
electrodes, which are separated by a small
gap, typically 0.01 to 0.5 mm
 Resistance Capacitance generators
generates the voltage pulses which are
EDM –schematic responsible for material removal.
 When the electrons and the positive
ions reach the anode and cathode, they
give up their kinetic energy in the form of
heat Temp: 8000 to 12,000°C , heat
flux:1017 W/m2, produce very short
duration spark -
0.1 to 2000μs
 At the end of the pulse, the pressure
Variation of voltage with time using an RC generator drops suddenly and the locally superheated
 Dielectric Fluid
The main functions of the dielectric fluid are to
• Flush the eroded particles from the machining gap
• Provide insulation between the electrode and the workpiece
• Cool the section that was heated by the discharging effect
The main requirements
• adequate viscosity,
• high flash point,
• good oxidation stability,
• minimum odor,
• low cost, and good electrical discharge efficiency
Four methods of introducing dielectric fluid i.e. flushing to the machining gap
• Normal flow
• Reverse flow
• Jet flushing
• Immersion flushing
For proper flushing conditions, the following was recommended by the Metals Handbook
(1989):
• Flushing through the tool is more preferred than side flushing.
• Many small flushing holes are better than a few large ones.
• Steady dielectric flow on the entire workpiece-electrode interface is desirable.
• Dead spots created by pressure flushing, from opposite sides of the workpiece, should
be avoided.
• A vent hole should be provided for any upwardly concave part of the tool-electrode to
prevent accumulation of explosive gases.
 Advantages
• EDM has the following advantages:
– Cavities with thin walls and fine features can be produced
– Difficult geometry is possible
– The use of EDM is not affected by the hardness of the work
material
– The process is burr-free
 Wire EDM

A wire travels along a prescribed

path, cutting the workpiece, with
the discharge sparks acting like
cutting teeth.
 LASER Beam Machining
• LASER is the abbreviation of light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation.
• A highly collimated, monochromatic, and coherent
light beam is generated and focused to a small spot.
High power densities (106 W/mm2) are then obtained
• Laser beam machining (LBM) offers a good solution that
is indeed more associated with material properties
such as thermal conductivity and specific heat as
well as melting and boiling temperatures.
Laser Beam Machining
 Material removal mechanism
• The unreflected light is absorbed, thus heating the surface of the specimen. On
sufficient heat the workpiece starts to melt and evaporates
• Depending on the power density and time of beam interaction, the mechanism
progresses from
– heat absorption and conduction
– Melting
– Vaporization
• Machining by laser occurs when the power density of the beam is greater than
what is lost by conduction, convection, and radiation
• Moreover, the radiation must penetrate and be absorbed into the material

.
Physical processes occurring during LBM
Parameters affecting the quality of laser-drilled
holes
Advantages
Tool wear and breakage are not encountered.
Holes can be located accurately by using an optical laser system for
alignment.
Very small holes with a large aspect ratio can be produced.
A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine materials can be tackled.
Machining is extremely rapid and the setup times are economical.
Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles (10° to the surface).
Because of its flexibility, the process can be automated easily such as the on
the-fly operation for thin gauge material, which requires one shot to produce a
hole.
The operating cost is low
Lasers are widely used in many industrial applications including plating,
heat
treatment, cladding, alloying, welding, and machining
 Selection of laser beam:

Limitation:
• High equipment cost
• Tapers are normally encountered in the direct drilling of holes
• A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with a laser
• The thickness of the material that can be laser drilled is restricted to
50mm
• Adherent materials, which are found normally at the exit holes, need
to be removed
 Electron Beam
Machining
• The earliest work of material removal utilizing an
electron beam was attributed to Steigerwald
who designed a prototype machine in 1947.
• Electron beam machining (EBM) has been used in
industry since 1960s, initially in nuclear
and aerospace welding applications.
• Drilling small holes, cutting, engraving, and heat
treatment are a set of modern applications used
in semiconductor manufacturing as
well as micromachining areas.
• The main components of EBM installation are housed in a
vacuum chamber, evacuated to about 10–4 torr
• The tungsten filament cathode is heated to about 2500 to 3000°C in
order to emit electrons
• A measure of this effect is the emission current, the
magnitude of
which varies between 20 and 100 mA
• Corresponding current densities lie between 5 and 15 A/cm2
• Emission current depends on the cathode material,
temperature, and the high voltage that is usually about
150 kV.
• Such a high voltage accelerates a stream of electrons in
the direction of the workpiece.
• After acceleration, electrons, focused by the field, travel
through a hole in the anode.
• The electron beam is then refocused by a magnetic or
electronic lens system so that the beam is directed under
control towards the workpiece.
• The electrons maintain the velocity (228 × 103 km/s)
imparted by the acceleration voltage until they strike the
workpiece, over a well-defined area, typically 0.25 mm in
diameter.
 Material removal
•rate:
The kinetic energy of the electrons is rapidly
transmitted into heat, causing a corresponding
rapid increase in the temperature of the workpiece,
to well above its boiling point, thus causing
material removal by evaporation

• It is believed that the workpiece surface is melted by a

combination of electron pressure and surface
tension

• The melted liquid is rapidly ejected and vaporized,

thus causing material removal rates of
about 10 mm3 /min.
Parameters affecting EBM
performance • The depth of penetration
depends on the beam

diameter, power density,

and the accelerating

voltage.
• The EBM rate is usually

evaluated in terms of the

number of pulses required

to evaporate a particular
Process capabilities:
Advantages:
• Drilling at high rates (up to 4000 holes per second).
• No difficulty is encountered with acute angles.
• Drilling parameters can easily be changed
during machining.
• No limitation is imposed by workpiece
hardness, ductility, and surface reflectivity.
• No mechanical distortion occurs to the workpiece
since there is no contact.
• High accuracy and repeatability of 0.1 mm for
position of holes and 5
percent for the hole diameter.
• Best surface finish compared to other processes.
• The cost is relatively small compared to other
Limitations:
• High capital equipment cost
• Long production time due to the time needed
to generate a vacuum
• The presence of a thin recast layer
• Need for auxiliary backing material
 Plasma Beam
Machining
• When the temperature of a gas is raised to about
2000°C, the gas molecules become dissociated into
separate atoms. At higher temperatures, 30,000°C,
these atoms become ionized
• The gas in this stage is termed plasma
• Machining by plasma was adopted in the early 1950s as
an alternative method for oxy-gas flame cutting of
stainless steel, aluminum, and other nonferrous metals
• An important feature of plasma beam machining
(PBM), is that it is the only fabricating method
that works faster in stainless steel than it does in mild
steel
• In plasma machining a continuous arc is generated between a hot tungsten
cathode and the water-cooled copper anode
• A gas is introduced around the cathode and flows through the anode.
• The temperature, in the narrow orifice around the cathode,
reaches
28,000°C, which is enough to produce a high-temperature plasma arc.
• Under these conditions, the metal being machined is very rapidly melted
and vaporized.
• The stream of ionized gases flushes away the machining debris as a fine
spray creating flow lines on the machined surface
Plasma arc:
• The arc is struck from the rear electrode of the plasma
torch to the conductive workpiece causing
temperatures as high as 33,300°C
• The double arcing effect between the nozzle and the
workpiece damages the electrode and the workpiece
• Owing to the greater efficiency of plasma arc systems,
they are often used for machining metals
• Because the temperature is high, the process is suitable
for any electrically conductive material including
those that are resistant to oxy-fuel gas cutting
Plasma jet:
• The non-transferred arc is operated within the
torch itself. Only ionized gas (plasma) is
emitted as a jet causing temperature as high
as 16,600°C
• Since the torch itself is the anode, a large part of
the anode heat is extracted by the cooling
water and is not effectively used in
the material removal process
• Nonconductive materials that are difficult to
machine, by conventional methods, are
often successfully tackled by the plasma jet
system
• Gas-shielded plasma:
– When machining different materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, and mild
steel, assisting gases may have to be used in order to produce cuts of acceptable
quality
– In such a case an outer shield of gas, is added, around the nozzle, to reduce the
effect
Material Shielding Gas
of the atmosphere on the machining gas(nitrogen or Argon)

stainless steel, aluminum, other hydrogen

nonferrous metals
ferrous and nonferrous metals Carbon dioxide

mild steels air or oxygen

• Water-shielded plasma:
– Water forms a radial jacket around the plasma torch
– The cooling effect of water is reported to reduce the width of the cutting zone
and improve the quality of cut.
– However, no improvement in both the cutting rate and the squareness of the cut
has been reported by McGeough (1988)
Air
plasma:
• Compressed air is used as the machining gas instead of nitrogen or argon
• When air is subjected to the high temperature of the electric arc, it breaks down into its
constituent gases
• Since the oxygen, in the resulting plasma, is very reactive especially with ferrous
metals,
machining rates are raised by 25 percent
• The main drawback of this method is the heavily oxidized surface, which is
frequently obtained in case of stainless steel and aluminum
• Because tungsten is reactive with oxygen, hafnium copper (Hf–Cu) or hafnium-
zirconium
(Hf–Zr) alloys also replace tungsten electrodes
• Since air is used for machining and shielding purposes, the machining cost is about half
that of gas- or water shielded plasma
• When a gas mixture of 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen is used, the machining rate of
mild steel is increased by about 25 percent
Advantages:
1) Requires no complicated chemical analysis or maintenance
2) Uses no harmful chlorinated fluorocarbons, solvents, or
acid cleaning chemicals
3) Operates cleanly, often eliminating the need for vapor
degreasing, solvent wiping, ultrasonic cleaning, and grit
blasting
4) Requires no worker exposure to harmful chemicals
5) Needs less energy to operate
Disadvantages:
1) The large power supplies needed (220 kW) are required to
cut through 12-mm-thick mild steel plate at 2.5 m/min.
2) The process also produces heat that could spoil the
workpiece and produce toxic fumes
 Ion Beam
Machining
• Ion beam machining (IBM) takes place in a
vacuum chamber using charged ions fired from
an ion source toward the workpiece by means of
an accelerating voltage
• The mechanism of material removal in IBM
differs from that of EBM
• It is closely related to the ejection of atoms, from
the surface, by other ionized atoms (ions) that
bombard the work material
• The process is, therefore, called ion etching,
ion milling, or ion polishing
 Machine
An ion source that produces a sufficiently intense beam, with an
system
acceptable spread in its energy for the removal of atoms from the workpiece
surface by impingement of ions
A heated tungsten filament acts as the cathode, from which electrons
are accelerated by means of high voltage (1 kV) toward the anode
 During the passage of these electrons from the cathode toward the anode, they
interact with argon atoms in the plasma source, to produce argon ions.
Ar + e− →Ar+ + 2e
 A magnetic field is produced
between the cathode and anode that
makes the electrons spiral
 The path length of the electrons
is, therefore, increased through the
argon gas, which, in turn,
increases the ionization process.
 The produced ions are then
extracted from the plasma toward the
workpiece, which is mounted on a water-
cooled table having a tilting angle of 0°
to 80°
Abrasive-Jet Machining
(AJM)
A high-velocity jet of dry air, nitrogen, or carbon
dioxide containing abrasive particles is aimed
at the workpiece surface under controlled
conditions.
 Water-Jet Machining (WJM)

WJM is a form of micro erosion. It works by forcing a

large volume of water through a small orifice in the
nozzle.
The extreme pressure of the accelerated water
particles contacts a small area of the workpiece and
acts like a saw and cuts a narrow groove in the
material.
 AWJM

The water jet contains abrasive particles such as

silicon carbide, thus increasing MRR.
Metallic materials can be cut. Particularly suitable
for heat-sensitive materials.