MODULE 2:
Developing Fundamental PLC Wiring Diagrams
and Ladder Logic Programs, Programming Timers
Electromagnetic Control Relays
• The PLC’s original purpose was the replacement of electromagnetic relays
with a solid-state switching system that could be programmed.
• The PLC has replaced much of the relay control logic, electromagnetic
relays are still used as auxiliary devices to switch I/O field devices.
• The programmable controller is designed to replace the physically small
control relays that make logic decisions but are not designed to handle
heavy current or high voltage.
• An electrical relay is a magnetic switch.
• It uses electromagnetism to switch contacts.
•Normally open (NO) contacts are defined as those contacts that are open
when no current flows through the coil but that close as soon as the coil
conducts a current or is energized.
•Normally closed (NC) contacts are closed when the coil is de-energized
and open when the coil is energized.
Contactors
•A contactor is a special type of relay designed to handle heavy power loads
that are beyond the capability of control relays.
•Unlike relays, contactors are designed to make and break higher powered
circuits without being damaged.
•Such loads include lights, heaters, transformers, capacitors, and electric motors
for which overload protection is provided separately or not required.
•Programmable controllers normally have an output capacity capable of operating
a contactor coil, but not that needed to operate heavy power loads directly.
Motor Starters
•A motor starter is designed to provide power to motors. The
motor starter is made up of a contactor with an overload
relay attached physically and electrically to it.
The function of the overload relay can be summarized as
follows:
• Overload relays are designed to meet the special
protective needs of motor control circuits.
• They allow harmless temporary overloads that occur when
a motor starts.
• The overload relay will trip and disconnect power to the
motor if an overload condition persists.
• Overload relays can be reset after the overload condition
has been corrected.
Manually Operated Switches
•Manually operated switches are controlled by hand. These include toggle
switches, pushbutton switches, knife switches, and selector switches.
•A pushbutton operates by opening or closing contacts when pressed.
•Commonly used types of pushbutton switches, which include:
Normally open (NO) pushbutton, which makes a circuit when it is pressed
and returns to its open position when the button is released.
Normally closed (NC) pushbutton, which opens the circuit when it is
pressed and returns to the closed position when the button is released.
Break-before-make pushbutton in which the top section contacts are NC
and the bottom section contacts are NO. When the button is pressed, the
top contacts open before the bottom contacts are closed.
•The selector switch is another common manually operated switch.
•A selector switch operator is rotated (instead of pushed) to open and close contacts
of the attached contact block.
•Dual in-line package (DIP) switches are small switch assemblies designed for
mounting on printed circuit board modules
Mechanically Operated Switches
•A mechanically operated switch is controlled automatically by factors such as
pressure, position, or temperature.
•Limit switches are designed to operate only when a predetermined limit is
reached, and they are usually actuated by contact with an object such as a
cam.
•The temperature switch, or thermostat, shown in is used to sense
temperature changes.
•Temperature switches open or close when a designated temperature is
reached.
•Pressure switches are all basically designed to actuate (open or close) their
contacts when a specified pressure is reached.
•Level switches are used to sense liquid levels in vessels and provide
automatic control for motors that transfer liquids from sumps or into
tanks.
Sensors
•Sensors are used for detecting, and often measuring, the magnitude of
something.
•They convert mechanical, magnetic, thermal, optical, and chemical variations
into electric voltages and currents.
Proximity Sensor
•Proximity sensors or switches, are pilot devices that detect the presence of
an object (usually called the target) without physical contact.
•These solid-state electronic devices are completely encapsulated to protect
against excessive vibration, liquids, chemicals, and corrosive agents found in
the industrial environment.
•Proximity sensors are used when:
The object being detected is too small, lightweight, or soft to operate a
mechanical switch.
Rapid response and high switching rates are required, as in counting or
ejection control applications.
An object has to be sensed through nonmetallic barriers such as glass,
plastic, and paper cartons.
•Long life and reliable service are required.
• A fast electronic control system requires a bounce free input signal.
•Proximity sensors operate on different principles, depending on the type of matter
being detected.
•When an application calls for noncontact metallic target sensing, an inductive-type
proximity sensor is used.
•Inductive proximity sensors are used to detect both ferrous metals (containing
iron) and nonferrous metals (such as copper, aluminum, and brass).
•Inductive proximity sensors operate under the electrical principle of inductance,
where a fluctuating current induces an electromotive force (emf) in a target object.
•The oscillator circuit generates a high-frequency electromagnetic field that radiates
from the end of the sensor.
•When a metal object enters the field, eddy currents are induced in the surface of
the object.
•The eddy currents on the object absorb some of the radiated energy from the
sensor, resulting in a loss of energy and change of strength of the oscillator.
•The sensor’s detection circuit monitors the oscillator’s strength and triggers a solid-
state output at a specific level.
•Once the metal object leaves the sensing area, the oscillator returns to its initial
value.
•Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to inductive proximity sensors.
•The main differences between the two types are that capacitive proximity sensors
produce an electrostatic field instead of an electromagnetic field and are actuated by
both conductive and nonconductive materials.
•Capacitive proximity sensors will sense metal objects as well as nonmetallic materials
such as paper, glass, liquids, and cloth.
•They typically have a short sensing range of about 1 inch, regardless of the type of
material being sensed.
•A capacitive sensor contains a high-frequency oscillator along with a sensing surface
formed by two metal electrodes.
•When the target nears the sensing surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the
electrodes and changes the capacitance of the oscillator.
•As a result, the oscillator circuit begins oscillating and changes the output state of
the sensor when it reaches a certain amplitude.
•As the target moves away from the sensor, the oscillator’s amplitude decreases,
switching the sensor back to its original state.
•The larger the dielectric constant of a target, the easier it is for the capacitive sensor
to detect.
Magnetic Reed Switch
•A magnetic reed switch is composed of two flat contact tabs that are
hermetically sealed (airtight) in a glass tube filled with protective gas
•Used in wide range of applications like automotive,fluid level
sensors,medical devices,speed sensors,laptops etc
Light Sensors
•The photovoltaic or solar cell reacts to light by converting the light energy
directly into electric energy.
•The photoconductive cell (also called a photoresistive cell) reacts to light by
change in the resistance of the cell.
•A photoelectric sensor is an optical control device that operates by detecting
a visible or invisible beam of light and responding to a change in the received
light intensity.
•Photoelectric sensors are composed of two basic components: a transmitter
(light source) and a receiver (sensor)
•The scan technique refers to the method used by photoelectric sensors to detect an
object.
•The through-beam scan technique (also called direct scan) places the transmitter and
receiver in direct line with each other
•In a retroreflective scan , the transmitter and receiver are housed in the same
enclosure.
•This arrangement requires the use of a separate reflector or reflective tape mounted
across from the sensor to return light back to the receiver.
•Fiber optic sensors use a flexible cable containing tiny fibers that channel light
from emitter to receiver
•An optical fiber does not contain any moving parts and carries only light means
that there is no possibility of a spark.
•This means that it can be safely used even in the most hazardous sensing
environments such as a refinery for producing gases, grain bins, mining,
pharmaceutical manufacturing, and chemical processing.
•Bar code scanners are the eyes of the data collection system.
•A light source within the scanner illuminates the bar code symbol; those bars
absorb light, and spaces reflect light.
•A photo detector collects this light in the form of an electronic-signal pattern
representing the printed symbol.
• The decoder receives the signal from the scanner and converts these data into
the character data representation of the symbol’s code.
Ultrasonic Sensors
•An ultrasonic sensor operates by sending high-frequency sound waves
toward the target and measuring the time it takes for the pulses to
bounce back.
•The time taken for this echo to return to the sensor is directly
proportional to the distance or height of the object because sound has a
constant velocity.
•Ultrasonic sensors can detect solids, fluids, granular objects, and textiles.
•They enable the detection of different objects irrespective of color and
transparency and therefore are ideal for monitoring transparent objects.
Strain/Weight Sensors
•A strain gauge converts a mechanical strain into an electric signal.
•Strain gauges are based on the principle that the resistance of a conductor
varies with length and cross-sectional area.
•The force applied to the gauge causes the gauge to bend.
•This bending action also distorts the physical size of the gauge, which in turn
changes its resistance.
•This resistance change is fed to a bridge circuit that detects small changes in
the gauge’s resistance.
•Strain gauge load cells are usually made with steel and sensitive strain gauges.
•As the load cell is loaded, the metal elongates or compresses very slightly.
•The strain gauge detects this movement and translates it to a varying voltage
signal.
Temperature Sensors
•The thermocouple is the most widely used temperature sensor.
•Thermocouples operate on the principle that when two dissimilar metals are
joined, a predictable DC voltage will be generated that relates to the difference in
temperature between the hot junction and the cold junction
•The hot junction (measuring junction) is the joined end of a thermocouple that
is exposed to the process where the temperature measurement is desired.
The cold junction (reference junction) is the end of a thermocouple that is kept at
a constant temperature to provide a reference point.
•Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are wire wound temperature-sensing
devices that operate on the principle of the positive temperature coefficient
(PTC) of metals.
•That means the electrical resistance of metals is directly proportional to
temperature.
•The hotter they become, the larger or higher the value of their electrical
resistance.
Flow Measurement
•Turbine-type flow meters are a popular means of measurement
and control of liquid products in industrial, chemical, and petroleum operations.
Velocity and Position Sensors
•Tachometer generators provide a convenient means of converting rotational
speed into an analog voltage signal that can be used for motor speed indication
and control applications.
•A tachometer generator is a small AC or DC generator that develops an output
voltage (proportional to its rpm) whose phase or polarity depends on the rotor’s
direction of rotation.
•The DC tachometer generator usually has permanent magnetic field excitation.
•The AC tachometer generator field is excited by a constant AC supply.
•An encoder is used to convert linear or rotary motion into a binary digital signal.
Encoders are used in applications where positions have to be precisely
determined.
Output Control Devices
• Output control devices include pilot lights, control relays, motor starters,
alarms, heaters, solenoids, solenoid valves, small motors, and horns.
• An actuator is any device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical
movement.
• An electromechanical solenoid is an actuator that uses electrical energy
to magnetically cause mechanical control action.
• The shaft of a stepper motor rotates in discrete increments when
electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.
• Every revolution is divided into a number of steps, and the motor must be
sent a voltage pulse for each step.
• The amount of rotation is directly proportional to the number of pulses,
and the speed of rotation is relative to the frequency of those pulses.
•Stepper systems are used most often in “open-loop” control systems, where the
controller tells the motor only how many steps to move and how fast to move, but
does not have any way of knowing what position the motor is at.
•All servo motors operate in closed-loop mode, whereas most stepper motors
operate in open-loop mode.
•Open loop is control without feedback, for example, when the controller tells the
stepper motor how many steps to move and how fast to move, but does not verify
where the motor is.
•Closed-loop control compares speed or position feedback with the commanded speed
or position and generates a modified command to make the error smaller.
•The error is the difference between the required speed or position and the actual
speed or position
Seal-In Circuits
• Seal-in or holding circuits is a method of maintaining current flow after a
momentary switch has been pressed and released.
• The motor stop/start circuit shown is a typical example of a seal-in circuit.
• The hardwired circuit consists of a normally closed stop button in series
with a normally open start button.
• The seal-in auxiliary contact of the starter is connected in parallel with the
start button to keep the starter coil energized when the start button is
released.
• When this circuit is programmed into a PLC, both the start and stop
buttons are examined for a closed condition because both buttons must
be closed to cause the motor starter to operate.
How it Works
1. Initial Activation:
When a normally open (NO) start button is pressed, current flows to the relay
coil, and the coil energizes.
2. Contact Closure:
The energized coil closes a set of its own normally open contacts, known as the
"seal-in" contacts.
3. Latching:
These seal-in contacts are wired in parallel with the start button, creating a
separate path for the current to reach the coil.
4. Continued Operation:
Once the start button is released, current continues to flow through the closed
seal-in contacts, keeping the coil energized and the device (e.g., motor) running.
5. Stopping the Circuit:
To stop the device, a separate normally closed (NC) stop button is used. Pressing
this stop button breaks the current path to the coil, causing the seal-in contacts to
open and the device to de-energize.
Electrical Interlocking Circuits
• An electrical interlocking circuit is used to prevent a piece of equipment from
operating under certain potentially hazardous or undesirable conditions.
• Figure shows a three motor hardwired relay control circuit electrically
interlocked to prevent the motors from accidently operating in an order other
than their proper sequence.
Motor 1 has to be operating before Motor 2 can be started.
The NO auxiliary interlocking contact M1-2 is used for this purpose.
Motor 2 has to be operating before Motor 3 can be started.
The NO auxiliary interlocking contact M2-2 is used for this purpose.
•Pushbutton interlocking is one of the methods of preventing two loads from being
energized simultaneously.
Each pushbutton is equipped with a set of momentarily normally open (NO) and
normally closed (NC) contacts mechanically connected together.
The NC contact of SOL-A pushbutton is connected in series with the NO contact
of SOL-B pushbutton.
The NO contact of SOL-A pushbutton is connected in series with the NC contact
of SOL-B pushbutton.
When SOL-A pushbutton is pressed its NO contact completes the circuit to SOL-A
and its NC contacts opens the current path to SOL-B.
When SOL-B pushbutton is pressed its NO contact completes the circuit to SOL-B
and its NC contacts opens the current path to SOL-A.
When both buttons are pushed, neither solenoid will be energized.
When both buttons are pushed, neither solenoid will be energized.
Latching Relays
• Electromagnetic latching relays are designed
to hold the relay closed after power has been
removed from the coil.
• Latching relays are used where it is necessary
for contacts to stay open and/or closed even
though the coil is energized only momentarily.
• The latch coil is momentarily energized to set
the latch and hold the relay in the latched