Chapter Five

Network layer and

Internetworking
IP ADDRESSING and Subnetting
Internet Addresses
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
 Classes of IP addresses are identified by the
decimal number of the 1st octet
Class A address begin with a 0 bit
Range of class A addresses = [Link] to
[Link]
Class B address begin with a 1 bit and a 0 bit
Range of class B addresses = [Link] to
[Link]
Class C addresses begin with two 1 bits & a 0 bit
Range of class C addresses = [Link] to
[Link].
Class-full and Classless IP Addressing
 Multicast addresses begin with three 1s and a 0 bit.
Multicast addresses are used to identify a group of
hosts that are part of a multicast group.
 IP addresses that begin with four 1 bits were
reserved for future use.
Class-full and Classless IP Addressing
 The IPv4 Class-full Addressing Structure (RFC 790)
An IP address has 2 parts:
-The network portion
Found on the left side of an IP address
-The host portion
Found on the right side of an IP address
Hosts for Classes of
IP Addresses
Network IDs and Broadcast Addresses
Classfull and Classless IP Addressing
 As shown in the figure, class A networks used
the first octet for network assignment,which is
translated to a [Link] class full subnet mask.
– Because only 7 bits are left in the first octet (remember, the first bit is
always 0), this made 2 to the 7th power or 128 networks.
– With 24 bits in the host portion, each class A address has the potential
for over 16 million individual host addresses.
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
 With 24 bits in the host portion, each class A address
had the potential for over 16 million individual host
addresses.
 What was one organization going to do with 16 million
addresses?
 Now you can understand the tremendous waste of
address space that occurred in the beginning days of the
Internet, when companies received class A addresses.
 Some companies and governmental organizations still
have class A addresses.
– General Electric owns [Link]/8,
– Apple Computer owns [Link]/8,
– U.S. Postal Service owns [Link]/8.
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
 Class B: RFC 790 specified the first two octets
as network.
– With the first two bits already established as 1 and 0, 14 bits remained
in the first two octets for assigning networks, which resulted in 16,384
class B network addresses.
– Because each class B network address contained 16 bits in the host
portion, it controlled 65,534 addresses. (Remember, 2 addresses were
reserved for the network and broadcast addresses.)
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
 class C: RFC 790 specified the first three octets as
network.
– With the first three bits established as 1 and 1 and
0, 21 bits remained for assigning networks for over
2 million class C networks.
– But, each class C network only had 8 bits in the host
portion, or 254 possible host addresses.
 Subnet Mask
• An IP address has 2 parts:
– The Network identification.
– The Host identification.
• Frequently, the Network & Host portions of the
address need to be separately extracted.
• In most cases, if you know the address class, it’s easy
to separate the 2 portions.
 Subnet Mask (Cont.)
• With the rapid growth of the internet & the ever-
increasing demand for new addresses, the
standard address class structure has been
expanded by borrowing bits from the Host
portion to allow for more Networks.
• Under this addressing scheme, called Subnetting,
separating the Network & Host requires a special
process called Subnet Masking.
 Subnet Mask (Cont.)
• The subnet masking process was developed to
identify & extract the Network part of the
address.
• A subnet mask, which contains a binary bit
pattern of ones & zeros, is applied to an address
to determine whether the address is on the local
Network.
• If it is not, the process of routing it to an outside
network begins.
 Subnet Mask (Cont.)
• The function of a subnet mask is to determine
whether an IP address exists on the local network
or whether it must be routed outside the local
network.
• It is applied to a message’s destination address
to extract the network address.
• If the extracted network address matches the
local network ID, the destination is located on the
local network.
 Subnet Mask (Cont.)
• However, if they don’t match, the message
must be routed outside the local network.
• The process used to apply the subnet mask
involves Boolean Algebra(i.e.,ANDing) to filter
out non-matching bits to identify the network
address.
 Default Standard Subnet Masks
• There are default standard subnet masks for
Class A, B and C addresses:
 A Trial Separation
• Subnet masks apply only to Class A, B or C IP
addresses.
• The subnet mask is like a filter that is applied
to a message’s destination IP address.
• Its objective is to determine if the local
network is the destination network.
 A Trial Separation (Cont.)
• The subnet mask goes like this:
1. If a destination IP address is [Link],
we know that it is a Class C address & that its
binary equivalent is:
11001110.10101111.10100010.00010101
 A Trial Separation (Cont.)
2. We also know that the default standard Class
C subnet mask is: [Link] and that its
binary equivalent is:
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
 A Trial Separation (Cont.)
3. When these two binary numbers (the IP
address & the subnet mask) are combined using
Boolean Algebra, the Network ID of the
destination network is the result:
 A Trial Separation (Cont.)
4. The result is the IP address of the network
which in this case is the same as the local
network & means that the message is for a
node on the local network.
Classfull and Classless IP Addressing
 Classfull Routing Updates
– Recall that classfull routing protocols (i.e. RIPv1) do not send subnet
masks in their routing updates
– This is because the router receiving the routing update could determine
the subnet mask simply by examining the value of the first octet in the
network address, or by applying its ingress interface mask for subnetted
routes. The subnet mask is directly related to the network address.
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
 In the example,
– R1 knows that subnet [Link] belongs to the same major classful network as
the outgoing interface. Therefore, it sends a RIP update to R2 containing subnet
[Link].
• When R2 receives the update, it applies the receiving interface subnet
mask (/24) to the update and adds [Link] to the routing table
– When sending updates to R3, R2 summarizes subnets [Link]/24,
[Link]/24, and [Link]/24 into the major classful network [Link].
• Because R3 does not have any subnets that belong to [Link], it will
apply the classful mask for a class B network, /16
Classful and Classless IP Addressing
 Classless Inter-domain Routing (CIDR – RFC 1517)
 Advantage of CIDR :
 More efficient use of IPv4 address space
 Route summarization
 ( reduce routing table size)
 ( reduce routing update traffic)
 Requires subnet mask to be included in routing update
because address class is meaningless
 The network portion of the address is determined by the network
subnet mask, also known as the network prefix, or prefix length (/8, /19,
etc.).
 The network address is no longer determined by the class of the address
 Blocks of IP addresses could be assigned to a network based on the
requirements of the customer, ranging from a few hosts to hundreds or
thousands of hosts.
 Classless IP Addressing
 Classless IP Addressing
 CIDR & Route Summarization
– Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM)
– Allows a subnet to be further sub-netted
• according to individual needs
– Prefix Aggregation a.k.a. Route Summarization
– CIDR allows for routes to be summarized as a single route
 Classless IP Addressing
 Route Summarization
– In the figure, notice that ISP1 has four customers, each with a variable
amount of IP address space.
– However, all of the customer address space can be summarized into one
advertisement to ISP2.
– The [Link]/20 summarized or aggregated route includes all the
networks belonging to Customers A, B, C, and D.
• This type of route is known as a supernet route.
• A supernet summarizes multiple network addresses with a mask
less than the classful mask.
Address Resolution protocol (ARP)
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is one of the major
protocol in the TCP/IP suite and the purpose of Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) is to resolve an
IP address (32 bit Logical Address) to the
physical address (48 bit MAC Address).
• Network Applications at the Application Layer use IP
address to communicate with another device. But at
the Data link layer, the addressing is
MAC address (48 bit Physical Address), and this address
is burned into the network card permanently.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

• RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol by which a

physical machine in a local area network can request to learn its
IP address from a gateway server's Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
table or cache.
• A network administrator creates a table in a local area network's
gateway router that maps the physical machine (or Media Access
Control - MAC address) addresses to corresponding Internet Protocol
addresses.
• When a new machine is set up, its RARP client program requests from
the RARP server on the router to be sent its IP address. Assuming that
an entry has been set up in the router table, the RARP server will return
the IP address to the machine which can store it for future use.
• RARP is available for Ethernet, Fiber Distributed-Data Interface, and
token ring LANs
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a communications protocol

that lets network administrators centrally manage and automate the
assignment of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses in an organization's
network.
• Using the Internet Protocol, each machine that can connect to the
Internet needs a unique IP address, which is assigned when an Internet
connection is created for a specific computer.
• Without DHCP, the IP address must be entered manually at each
computer in an organization and a new IP address must be entered each
time a computer moves to a new location on the network
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

• DHCP lets a network administrator supervise and distribute IP addresses

from a central point and automatically sends a new IP address when a
computer is plugged into a different place in the network.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

• Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is used to

communicate specific information between hosts about
network or communications problems.
• Ping (Packet Internet Groper) was designed to use ICMP in a
heterogeneous local area network environment to determine
the round trip time and availability of a remote host.
• Ping was never intended for use in the general Internet, but it
is the most commonly used network troubleshooting tool
available.
• ICMP is implemented as part of IP, but runs as if it were a
higher level protocol (it's encapsulated within IP).