MODULE-III

Sampling design – Population- Sample- Sample Size

determination- steps in sampling design- different types
of Sampling designs.
Data – Quantitative and qualitative data- data collection
methods- Primary and Secondary data- designing
questionairre
Measurement and scaling techniques - Measurement
meaning - Measurement scales — Sources of error
measurement- Scaling- Meaning - Scale classification
bases - Important scaling techniques
SAMPLING DESIGN
A sample design is a
definite plan for
obtaining a sample from
a given population.
 Census
All items in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population.’
A complete enumeration of all
items in the ‘population’ is known
as a census inquiry.
 STEPS IN SAMPLE
DESIGN
Type of universe
Sampling unit
Source list/ Sampling Frame
Size of sample
Parameters of interest
Budgetary constraint
Sampling procedure
 STEPS IN SAMPLE
DESIGN
Type of universe- Universe is set of entire units of objects (physical things) or
subjects (human being) selected for the study. For example, in a study of football
players in India, the set of entire football players is the universe of study.
Sampling unit - A sampling unit can refer to any single person, animal, plant,
product or 'thing' being researched. In the context of market research, a sampling unit
is an individual person.
Source list/ Sampling Frame - The sampling frame is the list from which units are
drawn for the sample. The 'list' may be an actual listing of units, as in a phone book
from which phone numbers will be sampled, or some other description of the
population, such as a map from which areas will be sampled.
Size of sample - ample size refers to the number of participants or observations
included in a study. This number is usually represented by n.
Parameters of interest - The parameter of interest or population parameter of
interest refers to a value of interest related to a specific research population. This is
the focus of the researcher who is seeking information about the population or
research sample being studied.
Budgetary constraint
Sampling procedure
 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
In this context one must remember that two
costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz.,
the cost of collecting the data and the cost of
an incorrect inference resulting from the
data.
Researcher must keep in view the two
causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic
bias and sampling error.
 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters.
A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling
procedures, Usually a systematic bias is the result of
one or more of the following factors:
Inappropriate sampling frame
Defective measuring device
Non-respondents
Indeterminacy principle
Natural bias in the reporting of data
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
 TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS
There are different sampling techniques available to get
relevant results from the population. The two different types of
sampling methods are:
•Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, every person in the target population
(either random or representative) has an equal chance of being
selected for the sample.
•Non-probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, some individuals in the group
will be more likely to be selected than others.
 Simple Random
Sampling
In simple random sampling technique, every item in the
population has an equal and likely chance of being selected in
the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the
chance, this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”.
As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it
is known as “Representative Sampling”.
Example:
Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200
students from a school. Here, we can assign a number to every
student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random
number generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.
 Systematic Sampling
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the
target population by selecting the random selection point and selecting
the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by
dividing the total population size by the desired population size.
Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse
alphabetical order. To select a sample in a systematic sampling method,
we have to choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a starting
number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th person
from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some
students.
 Stratified Sampling
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is
divided into smaller groups to complete the sampling
process. The small group is formed based on a few
characteristics in the population. After separating the
population into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly
select the sample.
For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with
different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and
bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls
from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A,
10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.
 Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed
from the population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics.
Also, they have an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method
uses simple random sampling for the cluster of population.
Example:
An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost
the number of students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities
and other things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data.
Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four branches as
clusters.
All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help
of the figure given below. The figure contains various examples of how
samples will be taken from the population using different techniques.
 Convenience Sampling
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from
the population directly because they are conveniently available for
the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the researcher
did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.
Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we
ask your few customers to complete a survey on the products after
the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data. Still, as we
only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same
time, the sample is not representative of all the customers in that
area.
Quota Sampling
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample
that involves the individuals to represent the population based
on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the
sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population.
For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age
group prefers what brand of cigarettes in a particular city. They
apply survey quota on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50,
and 51+. From this information, the researcher gauges the
smoking trend among the population of the city.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
VS QUOTA SAMPLING
The main difference is that in stratified
sampling, you draw a random sample from
each subgroup (probability sampling).
In quota sampling you select a
predetermined number or proportion of
units, in a non-random manner (
non-probability sampling).
Purposive or Judgmental
Sampling
In purposive sampling, the samples are
selected only based on the researcher’s
knowledge. As their knowledge is
instrumental in creating the samples, there
are the chances of obtaining highly
accurate answers with a minimum marginal
error. It is also known as judgmental
sampling or authoritative sampling.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as a
chain-referral sampling technique. In this
method, the samples have traits that are
difficult to find. So, each identified member
of a population is asked to find the other
sampling units. Those sampling units also
belong to the same targeted population.
 DATA
Definition of research data is: "the
recorded factual material commonly
accepted in the scientific community
as necessary to validate research
findings.
Facts and statistics collected together
for reference or analysis.
Types of DATA
 Sources of DATA
A) Primary data
• Primary data means first-hand information collected by an investigator.
• It is collected for the first time.
• It is original and more reliable.
•For example, the population census conducted by the government of India
after every ten years is primary data.
B) Secondary data
• Secondary data refers to second-hand information.
• It is not originally collected and rather obtained from already published or
unpublished sources.
•For example, the address of a person taken from the telephone directory or
the phone number of a company taken from Just Dial are secondary data.
 QUESTIONNAIRE
◦ A questionnaire is a research
instrument that consists of a set of
questions (or other types of prompts) for
the purpose of gathering information
from respondents through survey or
statistical study.
 WHAT IS A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE?
◦A good questionnaire should be valid,
reliable, clear, interesting and
succinct.
Designing Questionnaire
MEASUREMENT AND
SCALING
TECHNIQUES
Measurement and scaling techniques
Measurement is a process of
mapping aspects of a domain
onto other aspects of a range
according to some rule of
correspondence.
a) Nominal scale:
Nominal scale is simply a system of
assigning number symbols to events in order
to label them.
The usual example of this is the assignment of
numbers of basketball players in order to identify them.
Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated
with an ordered scale for their order is of no
consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels
for the particular class of events and as such have no
quantitative value.
(b) Ordinal scale
Ordinal scale is used in statistics and
research to categorize or rank data according to
some inherent order or ranking, but without
quantifying the magnitude of the differences
between them.
 Example
For example, you may wish to ask the TV viewers to rank the TV channels according to their preference
and the responses may look like this as given below:
(c) Interval scale
The interval scale is a metric scale that represents
quantitative values.
Interval data not only relates to measurement
categorization and ordering but also defines that
the distances between each value on the scale are
equal.
Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it is
not possible to determine for them what may be
called an absolute zero or the unique origin.
Interval Scale
(d) Ratio scale
Ratio scale is a type of variable
measurement scale which is
quantitative in nature. It allows any
researcher to compare the intervals or
differences
Ratio scales have an absolute or true
zero of measurement.
 SOURCES OF ERROR IN
MEASUREMENT
(a) Respondent
(b) Situation
(c) Measurer
(d) Instrument
 SCALING
Scaling describes the
procedures of assigning
numbers to various degrees
of opinion, attitude and other
concepts.
 SCALE CLASSIFICATION
BASES
Subject Orientation
Response Form
Degree of Subjectivity
Scale Properties
Number of Dimensions
Scale Construction Techniques.
 IMPORTANT SCALING
TECHNIQUES
(a)Comparative scales: In comparative scaling,
the respondent is asked to compare one object
with another. For example, the researcher can
ask the respondents whether they prefer brand
A or brand B of a detergent.
(b)Non-comparative scales: In noncomparative
scaling respondents need only evaluate a single
object. Their evaluation is independent of the
other object which the researcher is studying.
 Comparative Scales-
i) Paired Comparison Scale
This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is
presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one object
(rate between two objects at a time) according to some criterion. The
data obtained are ordinal in nature.
For example, there are four types of cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, Sprite,
and Limca. The respondents can prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite,
etc.
Coke–Pepsi
Coke–Sprite
Coke–Limca
Pepsi–Sprite
Comparative Scales- ii)
Rank Order Scale
The respondents are presented with several items
simultaneously and asked to rank them in the order of priority.
This is an ordinal scale that describes the favored and unfavored
objects, but does not reveal the distance between the objects.
Comparative Scales- iii)
Constant Sum Scale
In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of units such as points,
rupees, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion.
For example, you may wish to determine how important the attributes of price, fragrance,
packaging, cleaning power, and lather of a detergent are to consumers. Respondents might be
asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of the attributes using the
following format.
Comparative Scales-Q-Sort
Scale:
This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based on similarity
with respect to some criterion. The important characteristic of this methodology is that it is
more important to make comparisons among different responses of a respondent than the
responses between different respondents.
Non-Comparative Scales-
Continuous Rating Scales
In continuous rating scale, the respondent’s rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a continuous line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to
the other.
Non-Comparative Scales-
Itemised Rating Scales
Itemised rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions associated with each
category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents are required
to select one of the limited number of categories that best describes the product, brand,
company, or product attribute being rated.
Itemized rating scales,
namely (a) Likert scale
In business research, the Likert scale, developed by Rensis Likert, is extremely popular for
measuring attitudes, because, the method is simple to administer. With the Likert scale, the
respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with
carefully worded statements that range from very positive to very negative towards the
attitudinal object
Itemized rating scales -Semantic
Differential Scale
This is a seven point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels (such as good
and bad, complex and simple) that have semantic meaning. The Semantic Differential scale is
used for a variety of purposes. It can be used to find whether a respondent has a positive or
negative attitude towards an object. It has been widely used in comparing brands, products and
company images.
Itemized rating scales -Staple
Scale
The Stapel scale was originally developed to measure the direction and
intensity of an attitude simultaneously. Modern versions of the Stapel scale
place a single adjective as a substitute for the Semantic differential when it is
difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
SCALE CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES
?