Bandpass Modulation

&
Demodulation
Engr. Ghulam Shabbir
Modulation and Demodulation (MODEM)
Digital Communication System
Modulation and Demodulation (MODEM)
Baseband vs. Bandpass Communications
Baseband vs. Bandpass Communications
Baseband vs. Bandpass Communications
Bandpass transmission involves some translation of
the baseband signal to some band of frequency
centered around f
c
Bandpass Transmitter:
Carrier (high frequency pure sinusoidal generated by the
local oscillator) is altered in response to a given low
frequency signal (message signal) generated by the source
8
Bandpass Modulation and Demodulation

Bandpass Modulation is the process by which some
characteristics of a sinusoidal waveform is varied
according to the message signal.

Modulation shifts the spectrum of a baseband signal
to some high frequency.

Demodulator/Decoder baseband waveform recovery

Modulation
Modulation - process (or result of the process)
of translation of the baseband message signal
to bandpass (modulated carrier) signal at
frequencies that are very high compared to the
baseband frequencies.
Demodulation is the process of extracting the
baseband message back the modulated carrier.
An information-bearing signal is non-
deterministic, i.e. it changes in an unpredictable
manner.
Modulation & Demodulation
Baseband
Modulation
Carrier
Radio
Channel
Synchronization/Detection/
Decision
Carrier
Data in
Data out
Modulation
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a
sinusoid to produce a new signal.
This new signal, conceivably, will have certain
benefits of an un-modulated signal, especially during
transmission.
If we look at a general function for a sinusoid:
f(t) =A sin (t+)
This sinusoid has the following 3 parameters that can
be altered, to affect the shape of the graph.
1. A, is called the magnitude, or amplitude of the
sinusoid.
2. The term , is known as the frequency
3. The term , is known as the phase angle.
All 3 parameters can be altered to transmit data.
Modulation
The sinusoidal signal that is used in the
modulation is known as the carrier signal, or
simply "the carrier".
The signal that is used in modulating the carrier
signal (or sinusoidal signal) is known as the "data
signal" or the "message signal".
It is important to notice that a simple sinusoidal
carrier contains no information of its own.
In other words we can say that modulation is
used because some data signals are not always
suitable for direct transmission, but the
modulated signal may be more suitable.
Why Modulate?
Digital modulation is the process by which digital
symbols are transformed into waveforms that are
compatible with characteristics of the channel.
In the case of baseband modulation, these
waveforms usually take the form of shaped pulses.
But in the case of bandpass modulation the shaped
pulses modulate a sinusoid called a carrier wave, or
simply a carrier; for radio transmission the carrier
is converted to an electromagnetic (EM) field of
propagation to the desired destination.
The transmission of EM fields through space is
accomplished with the use of antennas.
Why it is necessary to use a carrier for the radio
transmission of baseband signals





Why Modulate?
The size of the antenna depends on the wavelength and
the application.
For cellular telephones, antennas are typically /4 in size,
where wavelength is equal to c/f, and c, the speed of light, is
3 x 10
8
m/s.
Most channels require that the baseband signal be shifted to
a higher frequency.
For example in case of a wireless channel antenna size is
inversely proportional to the center frequency, this is
difficult to realize for baseband signals.
For speech signal f = 3 kHz = c/f = (3x10
8)
/ (3x10
3
)

Antenna size without modulation /4=10
5
/4 meters = 15
miles - practically unrealizable
Same speech signal if amplitude modulated using f
c
= 900
MHz will require an antenna size of about 8cm.
For this reason, carrier-wave or bandpass modulation is an
essential step for all systems involving radio transmission.


It means that we need height of antenna equal to 10
5

m or 100 km! This is practically impossible!
However we can reduce its height by l/2, l/4, l/8 or up
to l/16. But even if we reduce it to l/16, it becomes 6.2
km, which is still impossible! Therefore, we cannot
transmit low frequency signals directly.
As per above equation, if we increase frequency of
electrical signal the height will reduce.
However, this creates one more problem! We want to
transmit electrical signals in audio range. But, our
highest audio frequency is 20 kHz. For this, height of
antenna will be around 15 km. This height is also
impossible!
Why Modulate?
This height is practically easily possible!
Also, our voice frequency constantly changes. So we will
have to change height of antenna constantly. So all these
problems are absurd.
The only solution to this problem----- is the process of
modulation.
In modulation very high frequency, carrier wave is taken.
It is modulated (in either AM or FM style) by modulating
signal, which we want to transmit actually.
After modulation, low frequency RIDES over carrier wave.
This modulated carrier wave is connected to antenna for
transmission.
Now suppose we want to transmit 3 kHz signal, with 300
MHz carrier wave. Then actually, 300 MHz signal is
transmitted. For this height of antenna will be
Why Modulate?
Why Modulate?
Now carrier signal will be transmitted with modulating
signal and at some distance, we shall receive it.
In receiver, we want 3 kHz signal actually. So by another
process of DEMODULATION, we shall filter out
unwanted 300 MHz signal and remaining PURE 3 kHz
signal will be used.
Bandpass modulation can provide other important
benefits in signal transmission. If more than one signal
utilizes a single channel, modulation may be used to
separate the different signals.
Modulation can be used to minimize the effects of
interference.
A class of such modulation schemes, known as spread-
spectrum modulation, requires a system bandwidth
much larger than the minimum bandwidth that would be
required by the message.



Why Modulate?
Modulation can also be used to place a signal in a
frequency band where design requirements, such a
filtering and amplification, can be easily met. This is the
case when radio-frequency (RF) signals are converted to
an intermediate frequency (IF) in a receiver.

This is evident that efficient antenna of realistic physical
size is needed for radio communication system
For this reason, carrier-wave or bandpass modulation is
an essential step for all systems involving radio
transmission.
Modulation also required if channel has to be shared by
several transmitters (Frequency division multiplexing).






Why Carrier ?
Effective radiation of EM waves requires antenna
dimensions comparable with the wavelength:
Antenna for 3 kHz would be ~100 km long
Antenna for 3 GHz carrier is 10 cm long
Sharing the access to the telecommunication channel
resources
Amplitude, frequency and phase of a carrier can be
varied according to the message signal.
Three ways of representing a modulated signal (M&P,
I&Q and complex envelope).
ASK generation and demodulation/detection
FM (or FSK) equivalent to modulating the phase of the
carrier by the integral of the message signal.



Bandpass modulation (either analog or digital) is the process
by which an information signal is converted to a sinusoidal
waveform; for digital modulation, such a sinusoid of duration T
is referred to as a digital symbol.
The sinusoid has just three features that can be used to
distinguish it from other sinusoids:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Thus bandpass modulation can be defined as the process
whereby the amplitude, frequency or phase of an RF carrier, or
a combination of them, is varied in accordance with the
information to be transmitted.
The general form of the carrier wave is
s(t) = A(t) cos (t)
where A(t) is the time-varying amplitude and (t) is the time-
varying angle.
Digital Bandpass Modulation
In modulation
the message signal is imposed on the carrier
a property or parameter of one signal (in this
case the carrier) is varied in proportion to the
second signal (in this case the message signal)
Modulation is performed at transmitter, and the
reverse operation (demodulation/detection) is
performed at receiving end

Digital Bandpass Modulation
It is convenient to write (t) = (t) + (t), so that
s(t) = A(t) cos ( (t) + (t))
=A(t) cos (2 f
c
t +(t))

where
0
is the radian frequency of the carrier,
(t) is the phase ; and = 2 f
c
The three parameters (amplitude, frequency and
phase) can be varied in analog or digital form.
When varied in digital form, it is referred to as
Shifting & Keying.
Digital Bandpass Modulation
The basic bandpass modulation / demodulation
types are listed as under:
Digital Bandpass Modulation
When the receiver exploits knowledge of the
carriers phase to detect the signals, the process is
called coherent detection
When the receiver does not utilize such phase
reference information, the process is called non-
coherent detection.
Modulation Process
Modulation implies varying one or more
characteristics (modulation parameters a
1
, a
2
,
a
n
) of a carrier f in accordance with the
information-bearing (modulating) baseband
signal.
Sinusoidal waves, pulse train, square wave,
etc. can be used as carriers
( )
1 2 3
1 2 3
, , ,... , (= carrier)
, , ,... (= modulation parameters)
(= time)
n
n
f f a a a a t
a a a a
t
=
Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques
Three ways of representing bandpass signal:
(1) Magnitude and Phase (M & P)
Any bandpass signal can be represented as:


A(t) 0 is real valued signal representing the magnitude
(t) is the genarlized angle
(t) is the phase

The representation is easy to interpret physically, but often is
not mathematically convenient
In this form, the modulated signal can represent information
through changing three parameters of the signal namely:
Amplitude A(t) : as in Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Phase (t) : as in Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Frequency d(t)/dt : as in Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
)] ( cos[ ) ( cos[ ) ( ) (
0
t t t A t t A t s | e u + = )| ( =
Continuous Carrier
Carrier: A sin[et +]
A = const
e = const
= const
Amplitude modulation
(AM)
A = A(t) carries information
e = const
= const
Frequency modulation
(FM)
A = const
e = e(t) carries information
= const
Phase modulation (PM)
A = const
e = const
= (t) carries information

There are three major classes of digital modulation techniques
used for transmission of digitally represented data:
1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
1. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
2. Phase-shift keying (PSK)
All convey data by changing some aspect of a base signal, the
carrier wave (usually a sinusoid), in response to a data signal.
In the case of PSK, the phase is changed to represent the data
signal.
There are two fundamental ways of utilizing the phase of a
signal in this way:
1. By viewing the phase itself as conveying the
information, in which case the demodulator must have a
reference signal to compare the received signal's phase
against; or
2. By viewing the change in the phase as conveying
information differential schemes, some of which do
not need a reference carrier (to a certain extent).
Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques
Angle Modulation
Angle modulation is a class of analog modulation.
In this type of modulation, the frequency or phase of
carrier is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.
Frequency and phase modulation are also known as
Angle Modulation.
These techniques are based on altering the angle (or
phase) of a sinusoidal carrier wave to transmit data,
as opposed to varying the amplitude, such as in AM
transmission.
Figure:
An angle modulated signal
0
( ) ( ) cos( ( )) ( ) cos( ) s t A t t A t t u e = = +
0
) (
) ( e
u
e = =
dt
t d
t
i
o o e u d t
t
i
}

= ) ( ) (
Angle Modulation
Consider a signal with constant frequency:
Frequency is the derivative of phase or the rate of change of
phase. The instantaneous frequency can be written as:
or
Then considering a message signal
m(t) = A
m
cos (2 f
m
t),
we can write the phase modulation as
0
( ) ( )
p
t t K m t u e = +
0
( ) cos[ ( )]
PM p
s t A t K m t e = +
0
( ) ( )
i p
d
t K m t
dt
u
e e
'
= = +
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) or PM
If we consider an angle modulated signal s(t) = A cos (t)
or a phase modulated signal as
where
i
= 2 f
c
and
In case of frequency modulation for a message signal
m(t) = A
m
cos (2 f
m
t)
0
( ) ( )
i f
t K m t e e = +
0
( ) [ ( )]
t
f
t K m t d u e o

= +
}
0
( )
t
f
t K m d e o o

= +
}
0
0
( ) cos[ ( ) ]
cos[ ( )]
t
FM f
f
s t A t K m d
A t K a t
e o o
e

= +
= +
}
where:
( ) ( )
t
a t m d o o

=
}
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) or FM
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
The message signal
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time
The modulated signal
Example
% Matlab script for generating FM via Phase modulation
clear all;close all;
t0=.15; % signal duration
ts=0.0005; % sampling interval
fc=200; % carrier frequency
kf=100; % Modulation index
fs=1/ts; % sampling frequency
t=[0:ts:t0]; % time vector
df=0.25; % required frequency resolution
%message signal
m=[ones(1,t0/(3*ts)),-1*ones(1,t0/(3*ts)),ones(1,t0/(3*ts)+1)];
int_m(1)=0;
for i=1:length(t)-1 % Integral of m
int_m(i+1)=int_m(i)+m(i)*ts;
end
u=cos(2*pi*fc*t+2*pi*kf*int_m); % phase modulating with the
% integral of the signal

Phasor Representation of Amplitude
Modulation
Consider the AM signal in phasor form:
0
( ) Re 1
2 2
m m
j t j t
j t
e e
s t e
e e
e


| |

= + +
`
|

\ .
)
Phasor Representation of FM
Consider the FM signal in phasor form:
0
( ) Re 1
2 2
m m
j t j t j t
s t e e e
e e e
| |

| |
= +
`
|
\ .
)
Digital modulations, (a) PSK (b) FSK (c) ASK (d) ASK/PSK (APK)
Amplitude Shift Keying
Modulation Process
In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), the amplitude of the carrier is switched
between two (or more) levels according to the digital data
For BASK (also called ON-OFF Keying (OOK)), one and zero are represented
by two amplitude levels A
1
and A
0

Analytical Expression:


where A
i
= peak amplitude




Hence,



where

s s
s s
=
0 0 , 0
1 0 ), cos(
) (
binary T t
binary T t t A
t s
c i
e
) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( ) (
0
2
0 0
t A t A t A t s
rms
rms
e e e = = =
R
V
P t
T
E
t P
2
0 0
) cos(
2
) cos( 2 = = = e e

=
s s
s s
= 1 ,...... 2 , 0 ,
0 0 , 0
1 0 ), cos(
) ( 2
) ( M i
binary T t
binary T t t
T
t E
t s
i
i
i
e
1 ,...... 2 , 0 , ) (
0
2
= =
}
M i dt t s E
T
i
Where for binary ASK (also known as ON OFF Keying (OOK))





Mathematical ASK Signal Representation
The complex envelope of an ASK signal is:


The magnitude and phase of an ASK signal are:


The in-phase and quadrature components are:



the quadrature component is wasted.
1
( ) ( ) cos( ), 0 1
c c
s t A m t t t T binary e = s s
0
( ) 0, 0 0 s t t T binary = s s
) ( ) ( t m A t g
c
=
0 ) ( ), ( ) ( = = t t m A t A
c
|
) ( ) ( t m A t x
c
=
, 0 ) ( = t y
It can be seen that the
bandwidth of ASK
modulated is twice that
occupied by the source
baseband stream

Bandwidth of ASK
Bandwidth of ASK can be found from its power spectral density
The bandwidth of an ASK signal is twice that of the unipolar NRZ
line code used to create it., i.e.,


This is the null-to-null bandwidth of ASK
b
b
T
R B
2
2 = =
If raised cosine rolloff pulse shaping is used, then the bandwidth
is:


Spectral efficiency of ASK is half that of a baseband unipolar NRZ
line code
This is because the quadrature component is wasted


(1 )
b
B r R = +
Detectors for ASK (Coherent Receiver)
Coherent detection requires the phase information

A coherent detector mixes the incoming signal with a locally
generated carrier reference

Multiplying the received signal r(t) by the receiver local oscillator
(say A
c
cos (w
c
t)) yields a signal with a baseband component plus
a component at 2f
c

Passing this signal through a low pass filter eliminates the high
frequency component

The output of the LPF is sampled once per bit period
This sample z(T) is applied to a decision rule
z(T) is called the decision statistic
Matched filter receiver of OOK signal
A MF pair such as the root
raised cosine filter can thus be
used to shape the source and
received baseband symbols
In fact this is a very common
approach in signal detection in
most bandpass data modems
Noncoherent Receiver
Does not require a phase reference at the receiver
If we do not know the phase and frequency of the
carrier, we can use a noncoherent receiver to recover
ASK signal
Envelope Detector:









The simplest implementation of an envelope detector
comprises a diode rectifier and smoothing filter
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

These signals are called antipodal.

The reason that they are chosen is that they have a
correlation coefficient of -1, which leads to the
minimum error probability for the same E
b
/N
o
.
These two signals have the same frequency and
energy.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

BINARY PSK
All PSK signals can be graphically represented by a
signal constellation in a two-dimensional coordinate
system with
1
(t) and
2
(t) as its horizontal and
vertical axis, respectively under:
Figure: BPSK signal constellation
and
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is switched
between 2 (for BPSK) or more (for MPSK) in response to
the baseband digital data
With PSK the information is contained in the
instantaneous phase of the modulated carrier
Usually this phase is imposed and measured with respect
to a fixed carrier of known phase Coherent PSK
For binary PSK, phase states of 0
o
and 180
o
are used
Waveform:


PSK Generation
Phase shift keying (PSK) was developed during the early
days of the deep-space program. PSK is now widely used
in both military and commercial communications
systems.
The general analytical expression for PSK can be written
as


where
g(t) is signal pulse shape
A = amplitude of the signal. It is a peak value of the
waveform.
= carrier phase

c
= 2 f
c

( ) ( ) cos[ ( )], 0 , 1, 2,....,
i c i b
s t A g t t t t T i M e | = + s s =
The range of the carrier phase can be determined using



For a rectangular pulse, we obtain

b b
b
E A assume and T t
T
t g = s s = ; 0 ,
2
) (
M i
M
i
t
i
,.... 1
) 1 ( 2
) ( =

=
t
|
Waveform Amplitude Coefficient
The waveform amplitude coefficient appearing in the equation of PSK
has same general form modulation formats. The derivation of
this expression begins with

where A is the peak value of the waveform. Since the peak value of
the sinusoidal waveform equals times the root-mean-square
(rms) value, we can write



assuming the signal to be a voltage or a current waveform, A
2
rms
represents average power P (normalized to 1). Therefore, we can
write

Replacing P watts by E joules/T seconds, we get


So, we shall use either the amplitude A in above equation or


t cos A t s ) ( e =
T E / 2
2
t cos A t s rms 2 ) ( e =
t cos

rms
2
2 e =
t cos P t s 2 ) ( e =
t ) ( cos
T
2E
t s =
T E / 2
We can now write the analytical expression as












In PSK the carrier phase changes abruptly at the beginning of each
signal interval while the amplitude remains constant
M i and T t
M
i
t
T
E
t s
b c
b
b
i
,.... 2 , 1 , 0 ,
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) ( = s s
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
t
e
carrier phase changes
abruptly at the beginning of
each signal interval
Constant envelope
We can also write a PSK signal as:






Furthermore, s
1
(t) may be represented as a linear combination of
two orthogonal functions
1
(t) and
2
(t) as follows


Where



|
.
|

\
|

+ =
M
i
t
T
E
t s
c i
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) (
t
e
(

= t
M
i
t
M
i
T
E
c c
e
t
e
t
cos sin
) 1 ( 2
sin cos
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) (
) 1 ( 2
sin ) (
) 1 ( 2
cos ) (
2 1
t
M
i
E t
M
i
E t s
i

t

=
] sin[
2
) ( ] cos[
2
) (
2 1
t
T
t and t
T
t
c c
e e = =
y x y x y x sin sin cos cos ) cos( =
Using the concept of the orthogonal basis function, we
can represent PSK signals as a two dimensional vector



For M-ary phase modulation M = 2
k
, where k is the number
of information bits per transmitted symbol

In an M-ary system, one of M 2 possible symbols, s
1
(t),
, s
m
(t), is transmitted during each T
s
- second signaling
interval

The mapping or assignment of k information bits into
M = 2
k
possible phases may be performed in many ways,
e.g. for M = 4



|
.
|

\
|

=
2 1
) 1 ( 2
sin ,
) 1 ( 2
cos ) (
t

t
M
i
E
M
i
E t s
b b i
A preferred assignment is to use Gray code in which
adjacent phases differ by only one binary digit such that
only a single bit error occurs in a k-bit sequence.

It is also possible to transmit data encoded as the phase
change (phase difference) between consecutive symbols
This technique is known as Differential PSK (DPSK)

There is no non-coherent detection equivalent for PSK
except for DPSK

M-ary PSK

In MPSK, the phase of the carrier takes on one of M possible
values


Thus, MPSK waveform is expressed as






Each s
i
(t) may be expanded in terms of two basis function
1
(t)
and
2
(t) defined as

M i
M
i
t
i
,....., 2 , 1 ,
) 1 ( 2
) ( =

=
t
|
(

+ =
M
i
t
T
E
t s
i
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) (
0
t
e
(

+ =
M
i
t t g t s
i
) 1 ( 2
cos ) ( ) (
0
t
e
. ..........
16 16
8 8
4
2
2
PSK
PSK
QPSK
BPSK
MPSK M
k

=
, cos
2
) (
1
t
T
t
c
s
e = , sin
2
) (
2
t
T
t
c
s
e =
Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

Two BPSK in phase quadrature
QPSK (or 4PSK) is a modulation technique that transmits 2-bit
of information using 4 states of phases
For example






General expression:
2-bit Information
00 0
01 /2
10
11 3/2
Each symbol corresponds
to two bits
s c
s
s
QPSK
T t i
M
i
t f
T
E
t s s s =
(

+ = 0 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ,
) 1 ( 2
2 cos
2
) (
t
t
The signals are:

) cos(
2
0
t
T
E
s
c
s
s
e =
) sin(
2
)
2
cos(
2
1
t
T
E
t
T
E
s
c
s
s
c
s
s
e
t
e = + =
) cos(
2
) cos(
2
2
t
T
E
t
T
E
s
c
s
s
c
s
s
e t e = + =
) sin(
2
)
2
3
cos(
2
3
t
T
E
t
T
E
s
c
s
s
c
s
s
e
t
e = + =
0 0
2 , 0
180 0 f , cos
2
) ( and o shift t
T
E
t s
c
s
s
= | e
0 0
3 , 1
270 90 f , sin
2
) ( and o shift t
T
E
t s
c
s
s
= | e
s c
s
s
QPSK
T t i
M
i
t
T
E
t s s s =
(

+ = 0 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ,
4
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) (
t t
e
We can also have:

One of 4 possible waveforms is transmitted during each signaling
interval Ts
i.e., 2 bits are transmitted per modulation symbol Ts=2T
b
)
In QPSK, both the in-phase and quadrature components are used
The I and Q channels are aligned and phase transition occur once
every T
s
= 2T
b
seconds with a maximum transition of 180 degrees
From



As shown earlier we can use trigonometric identities to show that

(

+ =
M
i
t f
T
E
t s
c
s
s
QPSK
) 1 ( 2
2 cos
2
) (
t
t
) sin(
) 1 ( 2
sin
2
) cos(
) 1 ( 2
cos
2
) ( t
M
i
T
E
t
M
i
T
E
t s
c
s
s
c
s
s
QPSK
e
t
e
t
(

=
In terms of basis functions


we can write s
QPSK
(t) as



With this expression, the constellation diagram can easily be drawn
For example:



t f
T
t and t f
T
t
c
s
c
s
t t 2 sin
2
) ( 2 cos
2
) (
2 1
= =
)
`

= ) (
) 1 ( 2
sin ) (
) 1 ( 2
cos ) (
2 1
t
M
i
E t
M
i
E t s
s s QPSK

t

t
Coherent Detection
1. Coherent Detection of PSK
Coherent detection requires the phase information
A coherent detector operates by mixing the incoming data signal
with a locally generated carrier reference and selecting the
difference component from the mixer output





Multiplying r(t) by the receiver LO (say A cos(
c
t)) yields a signal
with a baseband component plus a component at 2f
c
The LPF eliminates the high frequency component
The output of the LPF is sampled once per bit period
The sampled value z(T) is applied to a decision rule
z(T) is called the decision statistic
Matched filter receiver











A MF pair such as the root raised cosine filter can thus be used to
shape the source and received baseband symbols
In fact this is a very common approach in signal detection in most
bandpass data modems
2. Coherent Detection of MPSK
QPSK receiver is composed of 2 BPSK receivers
one that locks on to the sine carrier and
the other that locks onto the cosine carrier

t A t
0 1
cos ) ( e =
t A t
0 2
sin ) ( e =
2
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( cos ) ( cos )
2
s s
T T
s
A T
z t s t t dt A t A t dt L e e = = = A
} }
1 0 2 0 0
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( cos ) ( sin ) 0
s s
T T
z t s t t dt A t A t dt e e = = =
} }
) cos( 0
0
t A s e =




If




Decision:
1. Calculate z
i
(t) as


2. Find the quadrant of (Z
0
, Z
1
)

Output S
0
(t) S
1
(t) S
2
(t) S
3
(t)
Z
0
Lo 0 -Lo 0
Z
1
0 -Lo 0 Lo
) 45 cos( ) ( ) 45 cos( ) (
0 2 0 1
o o
t A t and t A t = + = e e
Output S
0
(t) S
1
(t) S
2
(t) S
3
(t)
Z
0
Lo -Lo -Lo Lo
Z
1
Lo Lo -Lo -Lo
dt t t r t z
i
T
i
) ( ) ( ) (
0

}
=
4
cos
2
2
0
t
s
T A
L =
A coherent QPSK receiver requires accurate carrier recovery using
a 4th power process, to restore the 90
o
phase states to modulo 2

Detection of Signals in Gaussian Noise
Detection models at baseband and passband are identical
Equivalence theorem (for linear systems):
Linear signal processing on passband signal and eventual heterodyning
to baseband is equivalent to first heterodyning passband signal to
baseband followed by linear signal processing
Where
Heterodyning = Process resulting in spectral shift in signal e.g.
mixing
Performance Analysis and description of communication systems is
usually done at baseband for simplicity
Correlation Receiver
}
T
0
}
T
0
comparator selects
si(t)
with max zi(t)
Decision Stage
reference signal
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
) (
1
t
) (t
M

dt t t r T z
T
) ( ) ( ) (
1
0
1

}
=
dt t t r T z
M
T
M
) ( ) ( ) (
0

}
=
}
T
0
}
T
0
comparator selects
si(t)
with max zi(t)
) ( t s
i
Decision Stage
) (
1
t s
reference signal
) (t s
M
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
dt t s t r T z
T
) ( ) ( ) (
1
0
1
}
=
dt t s t r T z
M
T
M
) ( ) ( ) (
0
}
=
) ( ) ( ) ( t n t s t r
i
+ =
) ( t s
i
) ( ) ( ) ( t n t s t r
i
+ =
Coherent Detection
Coherent Detection of PSK
Consider the following binary PSK example





n(t) = zero-mean Gaussian random process

Where : phase term is an arbitrary constant
E: signal energy per symbol
T: Symbol duration
Single basis function for this antipodal case:
T t t
T
E
t s s s + = 0 ) cos(
2
) (
0 1
| e
) cos(
2
) (
0 2
t | e + + = t
T
E
t s ) cos(
2
0
| e + = t
T
E
T t for t
T
t s s = 0 cos
2
) (
0 1
e
) ( ) ( ) (
1 1
t t a t s
i i
=
Transmitted signals s
i
(t) in terms of
1
(t) and coefficients a
i1
(t) are






Assume that s
1
was transmitted, then values of product integrators
with reference to
1
are

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 11 1
t E t t a t s = =
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 21 2
t E t t a t s = =
{ } { }
}
+ =
T
dt t t n t E E s z E
0
1
2
1 1
) ( ) ( ) ( |
1

{ } { }
}
+ =
T
dt t t n t E E s z E
0
1
2
1 2
) ( ) ( ) ( |
1


where E{n(t)}=0

Decision stage determines the the location of the transmitted signal
within the signal space
For antipodal case choice of
1
(t) = 2/T cosw
0
t normalizes E{z
i
(T)}
to E
Prototype signals s
i
(t) are the same as reference signals
j
(t) except
for normalizing scale factor
Decision stage chooses signal with largest value of z
i
(T)
{ } E dt t
T
t n t E
T
E s z E
T
=
)
`

+ =
}
0
0 0
2
1 1
cos
2
) ( cos
2
| e e
{ } E dt t
T
t n t E
T
E s z E
T
=
)
`

+ =
}
0
0 0
2
1 2
cos
2
) ( cos
2
| e e
Sampled Matched Filter
The impulse response h(t) of a filter matched to s(t) is:



Let the received signal r(t) comprise a prototype signal s
i
(t) plus
noise n(t)
Bandwidth of the signal is W =1/2T where T is symbol time then
F
s
= 2W = 1/T
Sample at t =kT
s .
This allows us to use discrete notation:


Let c
i
(n) be the coefficients of the MF where n is the time index and
N represents the samples per symbol

s s
=
elsewhere
T t t T s
t h
0
0 ) (
) (
,... 1 , 0 2 , 1 ) ( ) ( ) ( = = + = k i k n k s k r
i
] ) 1 [( ) ( n N s n c
i i
=
(eq 4.26)
(eq 4.27)
Discrete form of convolution integral suggests


Since noise is assumed to have zero mean, so the expected value
of a received sample is:


Therefore, if s
i
(t) is transmitted, the expected MF output is:


Combining eq (4.27) and (eq 4.29) to express the correlator outputs
at time k = N 1 = 3:

N modulo ,....., 1 , 0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1
0
= =

=
K n c n k r k z
i
N
n
i
{ } 2 , 1 ) ( ) ( = = i k s k r E
i
{ } N modulo ,....., 1 , 0 ) ( ) ( ) (
1
0
= =

=
K n c n k s k z E
i
N
n
i i
(eq 4.28)
(eq 4.29)
3
1 1 1
0
( 3) (3 ) ( ) 2
n
z k s n c n
=
= = =

3
2 1 2
0
( 3) (3 ) ( ) 2
n
z k s n c n
=
= = =

(eq 4.30a) (eq 4.30b)

Sampled
Matched
Filter

Fig 4.10
Coherent Detection of MPSK
The signal space for a multiple phase-shift keying (MPSK) signal set
is illustrated for a four-level (4-ary) PSK or quadriphase shift
keying(QPSK)
Fig 4.11
At the transmitter, binary digits are collected two at a time for each
symbol interval
Two sequential digits instruct the modulator as to which of the four
waveforms to produce
s
i
(t) can be expressed as:


where:
E: received energy of waveform over each symbol duration T
w
0
: carrier frequency

Assuming an ortho-normal signal space, the basis functions are:
t
T
t
0 1
cos
2
) ( e =
M i
T t
M
i
t
T
E
t s
i
,... 1
0
)
2
cos(
2
) (
0
=
s s
=
t
e
t
T
t
0 2
sin
2
) ( e =
s
i
(t) can be written in terms of these orthonormal coordinates:




The decision rule for the detector is:
Decide that s
1
(t) was transmitted if received signal vector fall in
region 1
Decide that s
2
(t) was transmitted if received signal vector fall in
region 2 etc
i.e choose i
th
waveform if z
i
(T) is the largest of the correlator
outputs
The received signal r(t) can be expressed as:

M i
T t
t a t a t s
i i i
,... 1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
=
s s
+ =
) (
2
sin ) (
2
cos
2 1
t
M
i
E t
M
i
E
t

t
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
( )
M i
T t
t n t t
T
E
t r
i i
,... 1
0
) ( sin sin cos cos
2
) (
0 0
=
s s
+ + = e | e |
The upper corelator computes

The lower corelator computes
dt t t r X
T
) ( ) (
1
0

}
=
dt t t r Y
T
) ( ) (
2
0

}
=
The computation of the received
phase angle can be
accomplished by computing the
arctan of Y/X
Where:
X: is the inphase component of the
received signal
Y: is the quadrature component of
the received signal
: is the noisy estimate of the
transmitted
i

The demodulator selects the
i
that is closest to the angle

Or it computes |
i
- | for each
i
prototypes and chooses
i
yielding
smallest output
Fig 4.13
Coherent Detection of FSK
FSK modulation is characterized by the information in the frequency
of the carrier
Typical set of FSK signal waveform:


Where : is an arbitrary constant
E: is the energy content of s
i
(t) over each symbol duration T
(w
i+1
- w
i
): is typically assumed to be an integral multiple of /T
Assuming the basis functions form an orthonormal set:


Amplitude 2/T normalizes the expected output of the MF
M i
T t
t
T
E
t s
i i
,... 1
0
) cos(
2
) (
=
s s
+ = | e
N j t
T
t
j j
,...., 1 cos
2
) ( = = e
dt t
T
t
T
E
a
j i
T
ij
) cos(
2
) cos(
2
0
e e
}
=
Therefore



This implies, the i
th
prototype signal vector is located on the i
th
coordinate axis at a displacement E from the origin of the symbol
space
For general M-ary case and given E, the distance between any two
prototype signal vectors s
i
and s
j
is constant:

=
=
otherwise
j i f or E
a
ij
0
j i for E s s s s d
j i j i
= = = 2 || || ) , (
Signal space partitioning for 3-ary FSK
NONCOHERENT DETECTION
Detection of Differential PSK
DPSK refers to a detection scheme classified as noncoherent
because it does not require a reference in phase with the received
carrier
Therefore if the transmitted waveform is:



The received signal can be characterized by:



is an arbitrary constant ; assumed to be uniform random variable
distributed between 0 and 2
n(t): AWGN process
M i
T t
t t
T
E
t s
i o i
,.... 1
0
)] ( cos[
2
) (
=
s s
+ = u e
M i
T t
t n t t
T
E
t r
i o
,.... 1
0
) ( ] ) ( cos[
2
) (
=
s s
+ + + = o u e
If we assume that varies slowly relative to two period times(2T),
the phase difference between two successive waveforms j(T1)and
k(T2) is independent of :



Basis for differentially coherent detection of differentially encoded
PSK is:
Carrier phase of previous signaling interval is used as phase
reference for demodulation
Its use requires differentially encoded message signal at the
transmitter since information is carried by difference in phase
between successive waveforms
| | | | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1 2
T T T T T
i j k j k
| u u o u o u = = + +
Detector in general calculates the
coordinates of the incoming signal
by correlating it with locally
generated waveforms such as:
2/T cosw
0
t and 2/T sinw
0
t

The detector then measures the
angle between the currently
received signal vector and the
previously received signal vector.



Fig 4.16 Signal space for DPSK
Sample Index,k 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Information Message,a
k
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Differentially Encoded
message (first bit
arbitrary), d
k
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
Corresponding phase
shift,
k
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Differential Encoding
k k k
a d d =
1
k k k
a d d =
1
Encoding Schemes
Detection of Binary PSK
Sample Index,k 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r(k) 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
) (

k a
1

=
k k k
r r a
Decoding Scheme
Advantages
1) Phase ambiguity can be resolved
2) Non-coherent detection techniques can be used
) (

k a
Sample Index,k 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r(k) 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
) (

k a
Sample Index,k 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
r(k) 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
2-bits in error
Drawback of Differential Encoding/Decoding:
When single bit errors occur in the received data sequence due
to noise, they tend to propagate as double bit errors
Since the decoder is comparing the logic state of current bit with
previous bit, and if the previous bit is in error, the next decoded bit
will also be in error
Differentially Encoded PSK (DEPSK) Modulation
The encoded sequence {d
k
} is used to phase-shift a carrier with
phase angle 0 and representing symbols 1 and 0 respectively
Method for the detection of DEPSK
Coherent detection of PSK followed by differential decoder (d
k
is
equivalent to r
k
in the previous slides)

In DPSK, the carrier phase of the previous data bit can be used
as a reference
Detection of FSK
The demodulator must be configured as an energy
detector, without exploiting phase measurements

For this reason noncoherent detector requires twice as
many channel branches as the coherent detector.

One implementation can be obtained by using the in-
phase (I) and quadrature (Q) channels to detect a binary
FSK (BFSK) as shown in the next slide.
}
T
0
}
T
0
Decision Stage

I channel
Q channel
2
(.)
2
(.)
t T
1
cos / 2 e
t T
1
sin / 2 e
) (
1
T z
) (
2
T z
) (
2
1
T z
) (
2
2
T z

}
T
0
}
T
0

I channel
Q channel
2
(.)
2
(.)
t T
2
cos / 2 e
t T
2
sin / 2 e
) (
3
T z
) (
4
T z
) (
2
3
T z
) (
2
4
T z
T z T z ( ) (
2
4
2
3
+
) ( ) (
2
2
2
1
T z T z +
+

) (t r ) (T z
2
H
1
H
0 ) (
>
<
T z
) ( t s
i
Decision Stage
{
Correlation
{
Squaring
{
I and Q energy
Summation
{
Test statistic and
decision
Fig 4.18
One of the simplest ways of detecting binary FSK is to pass the
signal through 2 Band Pass Filters(BPF) tuned to the 2 signaling
freqs and detect which has the larger output averaged over a
symbol period

An envelope detector consists of a rectifier and a low-pass filter
Detectors are matched to signal envelopes and not to signals
themselves
For BFSK, decision is made on the basis of maximum amplitude
amongst the two envelope detectors
For MFSK, decision is made on the basis of which of the M
envelope detectors has the maximum output
Fig 4.19
Required Tone Spacing for Noncoherent
Orthogonal FSK Signaling
FSK is usually implemented as orthogonal signaling, but not all FSK
signaling is orthogonal
How can we tell
If the two tones f1 and f2 are orthogonal to each other
Or they are uncorrelated over symbol time T
Property: any pair of tones in the set must have a frequency
separation that is a multiple of 1/T Hz
A tone with frequency f1 that is switched on for a symbol duration T
seconds and then switched off can be analytically described as:
)) / ( ) 2 (cos( ) ( T t rect t f t s
i i
t =

>
s s
=
2 / | | 0
2 / 2 / 1
) / (
T t for
T t T for
T t rect
Fourier transform of si(t):


The spectra of two such adjacent tones: tone1 with frequency f
1
and
tone 2 with frequency f
2
are shown:
T f f c T t s
i i
) ( sin )} ( { =
Fig 4.20
For FSK the bandwidth requirements are related to the spectral
spacing between the two tones
The frequency difference between the center of the spectral main
lobe and the first zero crossing represents the minimum required
spacing
With noncoherent detection, this corresponds to a minimum tone
separation of 1/T Hz.
For coherent detection, this corresponds to a minimum tone
separation of 1/2T Hz.
See Example 4.3, Page 202.


Example 4.3: Non-coherent FSK signaling
Two waveforms for: where f1>f2, the
symbol rate 1/T and = a constant arbitrary angle
(a) Prove that the minimum tone spacing for non coherently
detected orthogonal FSK signaling is 1/T


1 2
cos(2 ) cos 2 f t and f t t | t +
1 2
0
cos(2 ) cos 2 0
T
f t f t dt t | t + =
}
1 2 1 2
0 0
cos cos 2 cos 2 sin sin2 cos 2 0
T T
f t f t dt f t f t dt | t t | t t =
} }
1 2 1 2
0
cos [cos 2 ( ) cos 2 ( ) ]
T
f f t f f t dt | t t + +
}
1 2 1 2
0
sin [sin2 ( ) sin2 ( ) ] 0
T
f f t f f t dt | t t + + =
}
(eq 4.45)
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0
sin 2 ( ) sin 2 ( )
cos
2 ( ) 2 ( )
T
f f t f f t
f f f f
t t
|
t t
(
+
+
(
+

1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
0
cos 2 ( ) cos 2 ( )
sin 0
2 ( ) 2 ( )
T
f f t f f t
f f f f
t t
|
t t
( +
+ + =
(
+

1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
sin 2 ( ) sin 2 ( )
cos
2 ( ) 2 ( )
f f T f f T
f f f f
t t
|
t t
( +
+
(
+

1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
cos 2 ( ) 1 cos 2 ( ) 1
sin 0
2 ( ) 2 ( )
f f T f f T
f f f f
t t
|
t t
( +
+ + =
(
+

Assume that f1+f2 >> 1
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
sin 2 ( ) cos 2 ( )
0
2 ( ) 2 ( )
f f T f f T
f f f f
t t
t t
+
~ ~
+
(eq 4.49)
(eq 4.50)
| |
1 2 1 2
cos sin2 ( ) sin cos2 ( ) 1 0 f f T f f T | t | t + ~
1 2
1 2
Notethat for arbitrary , thetermseq4.51cansumto0onlywhen sin2 ( ) 0
andsimultaneouslycos 2 ( ) 1
f f T
f f T
| t
t
=
=
sin 0 x for x n and t = =
cos 1 2 integers x for x k wherenand k are t = =
: for arbitrary|
1 2
2 ( ) 2 f f T k t t = or
1 2
k
f f
T
=
1 2
1
(minimum 1) f f tone spacing at k
T
= =
Combining eq-4.49 & eq-4.50
(eq 4.51)
(eq 4.52)
(b) What is the minimum tone spacing for coherently detected
orthogonal FSK signaling?
For coherent detection we need to satisfy eq 4.45 for = 0
instead of any arbitrary phase. Rewriting eq 4.51 for = 0


Or


1 2
sin 2 ( ) 0 f f T t =
1 2
2
n
f f
T
=
1 2
1
(minimum 1)
2
f f tone spacing at n
T
= =
Complex Envelope
A real bandpass waveform s(t) can be represented using complex
notation

Where g(t) is known as the complex envelope, expressed as:


The magnitude of the complex envelope is:


And its phase:


g(t) is called the baseband message or data in complex form and
, the carrier wave in complex form
} ) ( Re{ ) (
0
t jw
e t g t s =
) ( ) (
) ( | ) ( | ) ( ) ( ) (
t j t j
e t R e t g t jy t x t g
u u
= = + =
) ( ) ( | ) ( | ) (
2 2
t y t x t g t R + = =
) (
) (
tan ) (
1
t x
t y
t

= u
t jw
e
0
Then the modulation can be expressed as the product of the two



Quadrature Implementation of a Modulator
Consider a baseband waveform g(t) appearing at discrete times k
=1,2,, Then g(t), x(t) and y(t) can be written as g
k
, x
k
,y
k
. Let x
k
=y
k

=0.707A; Then complex envelope can be expressed in discrete form
as:
The modulation process suggests:

]} sin [cos )] ( ) ( Re{[ ) (
0 0
t j t t jy t x t s e e + + =
t t y t t x
0 0
sin ) ( cos ) ( e e =
A j A jy x g
k k k
707 . 0 707 . 0 + = + =
} Re{ ) (
0
t jw
k
e g t s =
]} sin [cos ] Re{[
0 0
t j t jy x
k k
e e + + =
t y t x
k k 0 0
sin cos e e =
t A t A
0 0
sin 707 . 0 cos 707 . 0 e e =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
4
cos
0
t
e t A
Quadrature Type Modulator







Lead/Lag
relationships
of sinusoids
Error Performance For Binary Systems
4.7.1 Probability of Bit error for coherently detected BPSK
Whereas the received signal is :r(t) = si(t)+n(t)
The antipodal signals s1(t) and s2(t) can be characterized in a one-
dimensional signal space as:



Decision is made on the basis:



Probability of bit error P
B
,

T t
t E t s
t E t s
s s

=
=
0
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 2
1 1

otherwise t s
T z if t s
) (
0 ) ( ) (
2
0 1
= >
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}

0
2 1
) 2 / (
2
2 2
exp
2
1
0 2 1
o

t
o
a a
Q du P
a a
B
For equal-energy antipodal signaling, the receiver output components are


Then
2 2 1 1
s for E a and s for E a
b b
= =
du P
N E
B
b
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
/ 2
2
2
exp
2
1
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2
N
E
Q P
b
B
Probability of Bit error for coherently detected Differentially
Encoded BPSK
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0 0
2
1
2
2
N
E
Q
N
E
Q P
b b
B
Fig 4.25
Probability of Bit error for coherently detected Binary
Orthogonal FSK
A general treatment for binary coherent signals (not limited to
antipodal signals) yields



For orthogonal, BFSK =/2; thus =0 and:
du P
N E
B
b
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
/ ) 1 (
2
2
exp
2
1

t
du P
N E
B
b
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
/
2
2
exp
2
1
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
N
E
Q P
b
B
Probability of Bit error for Noncoherently detected Binary
Orthogonal FSK
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
2
exp
2
1
N
E
P
b
B
E
b
/N
0
penalty of the simpler
noncoherent detection is only
about 1dB at practical bit error
rates
As a result, the simpler,
noncoherent FSK forms the
basis of many low end (e.g.
1200 bps) telephone and radio
modems in the market-place
Note that, non-coherent
performance of FSK is not
nearly as bad as that for ASK
Probability of Bit error for Binary DPSK

Theoretical performance for
COPSK and DPSK is shown
here for an AWGN channel

BER for COPSK is exactly the
same as that derived for
bipolar (antipodal) baseband
transmission

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
exp
2
1
N
E
P
b
B
Advantages and Disadvantages of FSK

Advantages
FSK is a constant envelope modulation
hence insensitive to amplitude (gain) variations in the channel
hence compatible with non-linear transmitter and receiver
systems
Detection of FSK can be based on relative frequency changes
between symbol states and thus does not require absolute
frequency accuracy in the channel (FSK is thus relatively tolerant to
LO drift and Doppler Shift)

Disadvantages
FSK is less bandwidth efficient than ASK or PSK
The bit/symbol error rate performance of FSK is worse than PSK
In case of FSK, increasing the number of frequencies can increase
the occupied bandwidth

Advantages and Disadvantages of PSK
Advantage:
Bandwidth Efficiency
In order to improve on the bandwidth efficiency of bandpass data
transmission, we can increase the number of symbol states





A reduction in bandwidth by a factor of k
M k
k
B
B
Binary
ary M 2 _
log = =
b
ary M
b
Binary
kT
B then
T
B if
1
,
1
_
= =
Disadvantages:
Reduced immunity to noise
As a general rule, we know that as the number of
symbol states is increased, the tolerance to noise is
reduced
Two exceptions to this rule, QPSK and orthogonal
MFSK

Decreased immunity to noise compared to binary
Increased transmission power compared to binary
Increased complexity compared to binary
Lower transmission quality compared to binary