Aircraft performance

17AE63

PREPARED BY
VIGNESWARAN CM
ASST PROFESOR
 Aircraft performance
Topics covered
Introduction
Drag polar
Level un accelerated flight
Thrust and power requirements
Range and endurance
Take off and landing performance
V-n diagram
 OVERALL AIRPLANE DRAG
• No longer concerned with aerodynamic details
• Drag for complete airplane, not just wing
2
C C L2
C D Cd  L
C D C D , 0 
eAR eAR
Wing or airfoil Entire Airplane

Engine Nacelles Tail Surfaces

Landing Gear

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 3

 DRAG POLAR
• CD,0 is parasite drag coefficient at zero lift (L=0)
• CD,i drag coefficient due to lift (induced drag)
• Oswald efficiency factor, e, includes all effects from airplane
• CD,0 and e are known aerodynamics quantities of airplane
2
C
C D C D , 0  C D , 0  C D ,i
L
eAR

09/21/25 Example of Drag Polar for complete airplane

DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 4
 4 FORCES ACTING ON AIRPLANE
• Model airplane as rigid body with four natural forces acting on it
1. Lift, L
• Acts perpendicular to flight path (always perpendicular to relative wind)
2. Drag, D
• Acts parallel to flight path direction (parallel to incoming relative wind)
3. Propulsive Thrust, T
• For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in flight path direction
• May be inclined with respect to flight path angle, T, usually small angle
4. Weight, W
• Always acts vertically toward center of earth
• Inclined at angle, , with respect to lift direction

• Apply Newton’s Second Law (F=ma) to curvilinear flight path

– Force balance in direction parallel to flight path
– Force balance in direction perpendicular to flight path

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 5

 GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION (6.2)

Free Body Diagram

Apply Newton’s 2nd Parallel to flight path:

dV
F parallel T cos  T  D  W sin  m
dt
Apply Newton’s 2nd Perpendicular to flight path:
V2
F perpendicular L  T sin  T  W cos  m
rc
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 6
 LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
L

T D

W
• JSF is flying at constant speed (no accelerations)
• Sum of forces = 0 in two perpendicular directions
• Entire weight of airplane is perfectly balanced by lift (L = W)
• Engines produce just enough thrust to balance total drag at this airspeed (T = D)
• For most conventional airplanes T is small enough such that cos(T) ~ 1
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 7
 LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT

T D W W
TR  
L W  CL
 C 
 L
D
 
1
 D
T D  V 2 SC D
2
1 • TR is thrust required to fly at a given velocity in
L W  V 2 SC L level, unaccelerated flight
2

T CD • Notice that minimum TR is when airplane is at


W CL maximum L/D
– L/D is an important aero-performance quantity

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 8

 THRUST REQUIREMENT (6.3)
• TR for airplane at given altitude varies with velocity
• Thrust required curve: TR vs. V∞

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 9

 PROCEDURE: THRUST REQUIREMENT
1. Select a flight speed, V∞
2. Calculate CL
W
CL 
Minimum TR when airplane 1
 V2 S
flying at (L/D)max 2
3. Calculate CD

C L2
C D C D , 0 
eAR
4. Calculate CL/CD
5. Calculate TR

This is how much thrust engine W

TR 
must produce to fly at selected V∞  CL 
 C 
 D
Recall Homework Problem #5.6, find (L/D)max for NACA 2412 airfoil
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 10
 THRUST REQUIREMENT (6.3)
• Different points on TR curve correspond to different angles of attack
1
L W   V2 SC L q SC L
2
 C L2 
D q SC D q S  C D , 0  
 eAR 
At b:
Small q∞ At a:
Large CL (or CL2) and  to support W Large q∞
D large Small CL and 
D large

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 11

 THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY

TR D q SCD q S C D , 0  C D ,i 

C L2
TR q SCD , 0  q S
eAR
Zero-Lift TR Lift-Induced TR
(Parasitic Drag) (Induced Drag)

Zero-Lift TR ~ V2
(Parasitic Drag)

Lift-Induced TR ~ 1/V2
(Induced Drag)

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 12

 THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY
W2
TR q SC D , 0 
q SeAR
At point of minimum TR, dTR/dV∞=0
dTR  dTR   dV  (or dTR/dq∞=0)
   
dq  dV   dq 
dTR W2
SC D , 0  2 0
dq q SeAR
C L2
CD,0  C D ,i
eAR

CD,0 = CD,i at minimum TR and maximum L/D

Zero-Lift Drag = Induced Drag at minimum TR and maximum L/D
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 13
 HOW FAST CAN YOU FLY?
• Maximum flight speed occurs when thrust available, T A=TR
– Reduced throttle settings, TR < TA
– Cannot physically achieve more thrust than T A which engine can provide

Intersection of TR
curve and maximum
TA defined maximum
flight speed of airplane

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 14

 FURTHER IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN: VMAX
• Maximum velocity at a given altitude is important specification for new airplane
• To design airplane for given Vmax, what are most important design parameters?
 C L2 
D T q SC D q S  C D , 0   Steady, level flight: T = D
 eAR 
W Steady, level flight: L = W
CL 
q S
 W2  W2
T q S  C D , 0  2 2  q SC D , 0 
 q  S eAR  q SeAR Substitute into drag equation

W2
Turn this equation into a quadratic
2
q SC D , 0  qT 
 0 equation (by multiplying by q∞)
SeAR
and rearranging
1
T  W   W   TA 
2
4C D , 0 
2

 A         
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR  Solve quadratic equation and set
Vmax  
 C D , 0 thrust, T, to maximum available
 
  thrust, TA,max
 
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 15
 FURTHER IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN: VMAX
1
T  W   W   TA  4C D , 0 
2 2

 A         
  W  max  S   S   W  max eAR 
Vmax  
 C D , 0
 
 
 
• TA,max does not appear alone, but only in ratio (TA/W)max
• S does not appear alone, but only in ratio (W/S)
• Vmax does not depend on thrust alone or weight alone, but rather on ratios
– (TA/W)max: maximum thrust-to-weight ratio
– W/S: wing loading
• Vmax also depends on density (altitude), CD,0, eAR
• Increase Vmax by
– Increase maximum thrust-to-weight ratio, (TA/W)max
– Increasing wing loading, (W/S)
– Decreasing zero-lift drag coefficient, CD,0
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 16
 AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS

Two types of engines common in

aviation today

1. Reciprocating piston engine with

propeller
– Average light-weight, general
aviation aircraft
– Rated in terms of POWER

2. Jet (Turbojet, turbofan) engine

– Large commercial transports
and military aircraft
– Rated in terms of THRUST

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 17

 THRUST VS. POWER
• Jets Engines (turbojets, turbofans for military and commercial applications) are
usually rate in Thrust
– Thrust is a Force with units (N = kg m/s2)
– For example, the PW4000-112 is rated at 98,000 lb of thrust

• Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power

– Power is a precise term and can be expressed as:
• Energy / time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg m2/s3 = Watts
– Note that Energy is expressed in Joules = kg m2/s2
• Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s2) * (m/s) = kg m2/s3 = Watts
– Usually rated in terms of horsepower (1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W)

• Example:
– Airplane is level, unaccelerated flight at a given altitude with speed V ∞
– Power Required, PR=TR*V∞
– [W] = [N] * [m/s]
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 18
 POWER AVAILABLE (6.6)

Propeller Drive Engine Jet Engine

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 19

 POWER AVAILABLE (6.6)

Propeller Drive Engine Jet Engine

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 20

 POWER REQUIRED (6.5)

PR vs. V∞ qualitatively

(Resembles TR vs. V∞)

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 21

 POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
W
PR TRV  V
 CL 
 C 
 D

1 2W
L W   V SC L  V 
2

2   SC L
W 2W
PR 
 CL    SC L
 C 
 D

2W 3C D2 1
PR  
  SC L
3
 C 32  PR varies inversely as CL3/2/CD
 L 
 CD 
  Recall: TR varies inversely as CL/CD
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 22
 POWER REQUIRED (6.5)
PR TRV DV q SCDV q S C D , 0  C D ,i V
C L2
PR q SCD , 0V  q SV
eAR
Zero-Lift PR Lift-Induced PR

Zero-Lift PR ~ V3

Lift-Induced PR ~ 1/V

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 23

 POWER REQUIRED
1 W2
PR   V SC D , 0 
3

2 1
 V SeAR
2
dPR 3 2  1 
  V S  C D , 0  C D ,i  0
dV 2  3 

At point of minimum PR, dPR/dV∞=0

1
CD,0  C D ,i
3

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 24

 POWER REQUIRED
• V∞ for minimum PR is less than V∞ for minimum TR

1
CD,0  C D ,i
3

C D , 0 C D ,i

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 25

 WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT THIS?
• We will show that for a piston-engine propeller combination
– To fly longest distance (maximum range) we fly airplane at speed
corresponding to maximum L/D
– To stay aloft longest (maximum endurance) we fly the airplane at minimum
PR or fly at a velocity where CL3/2/CD is a maximum

• Power will also provide information on maximum rate of climb and altitude

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 26

 POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY (6.6)

Propeller Drive
Engine

PA

PR

09/21/25
1 hp = 550 ft lb/s = 746 W
DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 27
 POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY (6.6)

Jet Engine

V ∞

=T
A

PA

PR

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 28

 ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE (6.7)

Recall PR = f(∞)
Subscript ‘0’ denotes seal-level conditions
1
 0  2
VALT V0  
  
1
 0  2
PR , ALT PR , 0  
  

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 29

 ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE (6.7)
Propeller-Driven Airplane

09/21/25
Vmax,ALT < Vmax,sea-level
DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 30
 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)
• Boeing 777: Lift-Off Speed ~ 180 MPH
• How fast can it climb to a cruising altitude of 30,000 ft?

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 31

 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)

T D  W sin 
Governing Equations:
L W cos 
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 32
 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)

T D  W sin 
TV DV  WV sin 
TV  DV
V sin 
W Vertical velocity

Rate of Climb: R / C V sin 

TV∞ is power available

DV∞ is level-flight power required (for small  neglect W)
TV∞- DV∞ is excess power
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 33
 RATE OF CLIMB (6.8)

Propeller Drive Engine Jet Engine

Maximum R/C Occurs when Maximum Excess Power

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 34

 EXAMPLE: F-15 K
• Weapon launched from an F-15 fighter by a small two stage rocket, carries a heat-
seeking Miniature Homing Vehicle (MHV) which destroys target by direct impact
at high speed (kinetic energy weapon)
• F-15 can bring ALMV under the ground track of its target, as opposed to a
ground-based system, which must wait for a target satellite to overfly its launch
site.

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 35

 GLIDING FLIGHT (6.9)

sin  D
T 0 
cos  L
D W sin  1 To maximize range, smallest
tan    occurs at (L/D)max
L W cos  L
D
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 36
 EXAMPLE: HIGH ASPECT RATIO GLIDER

To maximize range, smallest  occurs at (L/D)max

A modern sailplane may have a glide ratio as high as 60:1
So  = tan-1(1/60) ~ 1°
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 37
 RANGE AND ENDURANCE

How far can we fly?

How long can we stay aloft?

How do answers vary for propeller-driven vs. jet-engine?

 RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• Range: Total distance (measured with respect to the ground) traversed by airplane
on a single tank of fuel
• Endurance: Total time that airplane stays in air on a single tank of fuel

1. Parameters to maximize range are different from those that maximize endurance
2. Parameters are different for propeller-powered and jet-powered aircraft

• Fuel Consumption Definitions

– Propeller-Powered:
• Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
• Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

– Jet-Powered:
• Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
• Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 39
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
SFC 
HP hour 
• ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum
number of pounds of fuel per hour

lb of fuel
 SFCHP 
hour 
• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum power required
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that C L3/2/CD is a maximized
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 40
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
SFC 
HP hour 
• RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile

lb of fuel SFCHP 

mile V

• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP/V ∞

• Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane
is flying at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 41

 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

C L  Winitial
 

R ln
SFC C D  W final 


• To maximize range:
– Largest propeller efficiency, 
– Lowest possible SFC
– Highest ratio of Winitial to Wfinal, which is obtained with the largest fuel weight
– Fly at maximum L/D

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 42

 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

 C L  Winitial 

R ln
SFC C D  W final 


Propulsion Structures and Materials

Aerodynamics

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 43

 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA

3
 CL 2 1 1
2   S  2  W final2  Winitial2 
 1
E
SFC C D  

• To maximize endurance:
– Largest propeller efficiency, 
– Lowest possible SFC
– Largest fuel weight
– Fly at maximum CL3/2/CD
– Flight at sea level

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 44

 JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per thrust per unit time

lb of fuel
TSFC 
lb of thrust hour 

• ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum

number of pounds of fuel per hour

lb of fuel
 TSFCThrust 
hour 

• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum thrust

• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum thrust required
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that C L/CD is a maximum
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 45
 JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
• TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
TSFC 
lb of thrust hour 

• RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile
lb of fuel SFCThrust 

mile V

• Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum Thrust/V∞

TR 1 2W 1
 S CD  1
V 2   SCL CL 2
CD
• Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL1/2/CD is a maximum
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 46
 JET-POWERED: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

1
2 1 C L 2  12 1
2 
R 2  Winitial  W final 
  S TSFC C D  

• To maximize range:
– Minimum TSFC
– Maximum fuel weight
– Flight at maximum CL1/2/CD
– Fly at high altitudes

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 47

 JET-POWERED: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA

1 C L  Winitial 

E ln
TSFC C D  W final 


• To maximize endurance:
– Minimum TSFC
– Maximum fuel weight
– Flight at maximum L/D

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 48

 SUMMARY: ENDURANCE AND RANGE
• Maximum Endurance
– Propeller-Driven
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at minimum power required
• Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is
flying at a velocity such that CL3/2/CD is a maximized
– Jet Engine-Driven
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at minimum thrust required
• Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum

• Maximum Range
– Propeller-Driven
• Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum
– Jet Engine-Driven
• Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying at a
velocity such that CL1/2/CD is a maximum
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 49
EXAMPLES OF DYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE

Take-Off Distance
Turning Flight
 TAKE-OFF AND LANDING ANALYSES

dV
F ma m
dt Rolling resistance
F
dV  dt r = 0.02
m
F
V t dV
m F T  D  R T  D   r W  L  m
ds Vdt dt
V 2m
s
2F s: lift-off distance
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 51
 NUMERICAL SOLUTION FOR TAKE-OFF

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 52

 USEFUL APPROXIMATION (T >> D, R)
sL.O.: lift-off distance

2
1.44W
s L.O. 
g  SC L ,maxT
• Lift-off distance very sensitive to weight, varies as W 2
• Depends on ambient density
• Lift-off distance may be decreased:
– Increasing wing area, S
– Increasing CL,max
– Increasing thrust, T

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 53

 EXAMPLES OF GROUND EFFECT

09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 54

 TURNING FLIGHT
L cos  W
Fr  L2  W 2
L
n Load Factor
W
Fr W n 2  1
V2
Fr m
R
V2
R: Turn Radius
R
g n2  1
d V g n 2  1
  
dt R V
: Turn Rate
09/21/25 DEPARTMENRT OF AERONAUTICS, SJCIT 55
 EXAMPLE: PULL-UP MANEUVER

Fr L  W W n  1
V2
Fr m
R
V2
R
g n  1 R: Turn Radius

g n  1
 : Turn Rate
V

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 V-n DIAGRAMS
1
 V
L 2   L
2
SC
n 
W W
1 2 C L , max
nmax   V
2 W
S

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 STRUCTURAL LIMITS

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