CHAPTER TWO
PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN
MAIN CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTER
Human Evolution
Neolithic Revolution
The Peopling of the Region
Religion and Religious Processes
THE PURPOSE
To show the region is home to diverse peoples, and cultures (languages,
religion, customs…) and economic activities.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Brainstorming Question
How do you think human beings came into
being?
Con’s
Regarding origin of human being, there are two divergent
views.
1. The creationist view that argues super natural force or
God created non-living and living things including human
being with complete physical shape and structure.
2. The evolutionist view asserts that living things and non
living things developed from small beings through
gradual changes of many million years.
The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809-
1882) published Theory of Evolution or Origin of Species
by Natural Selection (1859) and Descent of Man (1871).
Cont’d…
Scientists have considered East African Rift Valley as
cradle of humanity.
A fossil named as Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was
discovered in Ancar (in Hararghe) in 2007.
Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP)
was discovered in Middle Awash.
Ardipithecus Ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered
by Tim D. White at Aramis is Afar in 1994 A. D.
Fossil termed as Australopithecus Afarnesis/Lucy/Dinkinesh
(dated c. 3.18 million years B.P.) was discovered by Donald Carl
Johnson at Hadar in 1974 A.D.
Cont’d…
The development of the human brain was the next stage of
main feature of human evolution.
This produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-
2.5 million years B.P.
Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in
different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
HOMO HABILIS
The word homo habilis derived from Latin terms "Homo"
(human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands).
It has been found in the Lower Omo dated 1.9 million years B.
P.
HOMO ERECTUS
Homo Erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.)
was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb
with 900-1100 cc brain size. (Normal human brain size 1,300 cubic
centimeters.)
Homo Erectus have originated in Africa and then spread out to the
rest of the world.(the first human being to be discovered outside
Africa in Asia & Europe)
They invented fire and started burial practice.
ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS
Archaic Homo Sapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400,
000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was
discovered in Middle Awash.
HOMO SAPIENS-SAPIENS
Homo sapiens-sapiens dated 100, 000 years B.P.
were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa,
and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967).
In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195,
000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for
modern Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash
in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
Cont’d…
Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought
socio-economic transformation on human life.
It can be conventionally grouped in to:
Stone Age
Bronze Age and
Iron Age
Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human
beings.
By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools
can be grouped in to three:
Mode I
Mode II and
Mode III
MODE I
They are known as Olduwan, which was named based on the
first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.
These stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-
facial styles, and were produced by the direct percussion.
Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by
Homo Habilis were discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million
years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
MODE II
They known as Acheulean, named after the first report
at St. Acheul, France.
They were produced by indirect percussion, by using
hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial,
pointed and convex features.
Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to
[Link] years B.P, invented fire and started burial
practice.
Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at
Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
MODE III
Sangoon stone tools are characterized by flexible and
finest form of production by the use of obsidian.
Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace
back up to 300,000 years B. P.
Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has
been dated back to 200, 000 B. P.
Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and
Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in
Somalia.
Cont’d…
The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is
divided into three sub-periods.
1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) up to 11, 000 B.P.
This was the period when human being developed
language with shelter in cave using stone, bone,
wood, furs & skin materials to prepare food and
clothing.
There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied
males as hunters of fauna, and children and females
as gatherers of flora.
Cont’d…
2. Mesolithic/ middle Stone Age (11, 000-10,000
B.P.) was transition between Old and
Neolithic/New Stone Ages.
3. Neolithic Revolution
During the Neolithic period
Human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary
way of life.
This was a radical shift involving changes from
hunting and gathering to the domestication of
plants and animals.
Neolithic Revolution
Brainstorming Question
What do you know about the domestication of plants and
animals?
Neolithic Revolution
During this period human beings transformed from mobile to
sedentary way of life.
The process of domestication took place independently in
the various parts of the world.
In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and
wetter-parts, people cultivated plants including Teff
(Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia
abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced
shifting cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots),
slowing down soil exhaustion.
THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION
Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic
and linguistic diversity.
There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn
into two major language super families. These are:
S Afro-Asiatic and
S Nilo-Saharan
Cont’d…
Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following
families:
Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea
bordering the Sudan.
Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and
Bilen.
Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Oromo,
Somali, Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo,
Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Saho, Sidama,
Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
Cont’d..
Semitic: is divided into two:
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-
Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland);
Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
South: is further divided into two
Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane
and Zay.
Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes
(endangered)
Cont’d…
Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Basketo, Bench, Boro
(Shinasha), Chara, Dawro, Dime, Dizi, Doko, Dorze,
Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer-Banna, Hozo,
Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete,
Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko,
Wolayita, Yem and Zayse.
NILO-SAHARAN:
Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo,
Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle,
Mursi, Nuer, Nyangatom, Opuo, Shabo, Suri& Uduk.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
A settlement pattern is the distribution of peoples across the
landscape.
It is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa.
In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse.
Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the
lowlands.
Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.
Cont’d…
The Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area
between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west
from where they dispersed to different directions.
The Cushite's have evolved to be the largest linguistic group
in Ethiopia and the Horn and have also spread over wide
areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and
eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern,
south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
The Semites are the second majority people next to the
Cushite's.
Cont’d…
Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-
Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the
majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited
southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River
basin.
The Nilotes are largely settled along the
Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the
Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern
Omo.
ECONOMIC FORMATIONS
The domestication of plants and animals gave
humanity two interdependent modes of life
agriculture and pastoralism.
A predominantly pastoral economy has
characterized the eastern lowland region since
early periods.
Pastoral economy has been the most common
economic practice among the Afar, Saho and
Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
Cont’d…
The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for
thousands of years supporting sizable populations.
Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed
farming.
It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started
and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the
Cushite's, Semites and Omotic groups.
In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the
dominant economic formations were pastoralism,
shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
Cont’d…
The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers
have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a
staple food.
Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values.
RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS
PROCESSES
INDIGENOUS RELIGION
This includes a variety of religious beliefs and
practices, which are native to the region and have been
followed by the local people since ancient times.
A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in
one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed
to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred.
THE OROMO WAAQEFFANNAA
Waaqeffanna is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called
Waqa.
Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete
(women or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity
spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit) and
Qasa (anti-disease spirit).
Cont’d…
In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge
of ever-flowing river there is thanks giving festival called
Irrecha.
Effective relationship between Ayyana and Oromo has
been maintained by respected expert known as Qaalluu
for male and Qaallitti for female.
Qaalluu or Qaallitti care for spiritual wellbeing as well as
influence socio-economic & political life of the community.
Place of worship or Qaalluu house is called Galmaa
located on hilltop/side or in grove of large trees.
THE HADIYA'S WA’A
The indigenous religion of Hadiyya called Fandannano.
The Supreme Being in Hadiyya is known as Wa’a.
It is believed to exist before everything or create world.
Its eyes are represented by elincho (sun) & aganna (moon).
Spirits like Jarra (male’s protector), Idoota (female’s guard),
Hausula, Qedane & Worriqa attracted most of prayers and sacrifices
at Shonkolla & Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho &
Jaramanjcho.
Cont’d…
The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and
religious officials known as Magnancho.
The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks
giving ceremony called Deraro.
The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/ Wakh.
The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky
God).
Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (supreme
deity), Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess).
Cont’d…
The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as
Abba at Enar (Henar).
The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in
charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity).
Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village
called Magos.
The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
THE WOLAYTA’S TOSO
The Wolaita God is known as Toso and spirit as Ayyana including
Tawa Awa/Moytiliya (father’s spirit)
Sawuna (justice spirit)
Wombo (rain spirit)
Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit)
Gomashera (war spirit) etc.
Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta.
People gathered around tree called Dongowa which varied from clan to
clan.
KAFFA’S YERO
Kaffa called the Supreme Being as Yero and spirit as Eqo
A person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo
Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno.
Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo.
Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-
baro
NUER’S KUOTH NHIAL
Believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and
thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God.
Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation
or sign of God.
WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.
JUDAISM
Judaism is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, religion of
the ancient Jewish/Hebrew people.
It is considered to be the expression of the
covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah/God established
with the Israeli.
It has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by the
people called Beta Israel since 4th c.
The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious
practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite
religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism).
Cont’d…
Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins from
The very ancient migration of the Tribe of Dan to
Ethiopia, perhaps at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200
B.C.).
The later crises in Judea, split of the northern Kingdom
of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the
death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
During Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King
Solomon of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of
Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic
Emperor of Ethiopia.
Cont’d…
Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived
in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th
century A.D.
Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants
intermarried with the Agaws.
Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been
isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a
millennium.
The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in
northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
CHRISTIANITY
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of
King Ezana (r. 320-360).
Aksumite King Ezana (r. 320-360 AD) was the first to
embrace Christianity.
Instrumental in his conversion were Syrian brothers, Aedesius &
Fremnatos (Frementius).
When Fremnatos visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-
373), appointed him first Bishop of Ethiopia under title Aba
Salama.
This made Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) subservient to
Coptic in Egypt until full independence.
Cont’d…
Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt
continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch.
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the
society in later part of 5th century, following the arrival of Nine
Saints especially during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86)
by the Nine Saints.
The Nine Saints did three important activates that led for the
expansion of the religion to the mass population:
I. They translated Bible from Greek to Ge’ez language
II. They constructed churches and monasteries
III. They propagated the religion to the mass in different public gathering.
Cont’d…
Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Za Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Gerima)
Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum)
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum)
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of
Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
Cont’d…
Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period
(1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during the
early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and
monasteries were constructed.
These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan
of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima
and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir
Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers,
but served through the ages as repositories of ancient
manuscripts and precious objects of art.
Cont’d…
From mid 16th to the early 17th, Jesuits tried to convert
Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion
of the Jesuits.
As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of
the dominant themes of treaties concluded between
European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder),
Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal
Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
Cont’d…
Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church
Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan
Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major
leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them
to win confidence of local people.
They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo,
Toso etc. and used them in new versions as equivalent to
God.
Cont’d…
Village schools were established as centers of
preaching the faith.
These schools were open to all children of chiefs and
farmers.
They also provided medical facilities.
All these attracted a large number of followers.
Eventually, continuous and systematic
indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of
new teaching on indigenous religion.
Islam
Despite concerns about the reliability of early sources, most historians particularly
(non-Muslims) believe that Islam originated in Mecca and Madinah at the start of
7th century.
Muslims, however, believe that it did not start in the 7th C by Prophet Muhammed,
rather Islam traced back as far as the history of mankind since Adam.
It is/was the original faith and Muslims regard Jesus, David, Mosses, Abraham,
Noah and Adam and others as a Prophets of Islam.
In Around 570 A.D Muhammad Ibn Abdallah was born in Mecca a few months
after his father’s death.
When his teachings faced opposition from the Quraysh tribe rulers, Aksumite king
Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave
asylum for the early followers including his daughter Rukiya & her husband
Uthman and his future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Ali Talib
from 615- 628 A. D.
Cont’d…
Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through
Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade.
Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the
Red Sea by the beginning of 8th c.
In the early 10th c, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate.
It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread
among the predominantly pastoral communities of the
interior, largely through the agency of preachers and
merchants.
Cont’d…
The Dahlak route played a minor role in
introduction of Islam into the interior where
Christianity was strongly established.
The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf
of Aden served as an important gateway
for the introduction of Islam into the present
day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
Cont’d…
Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the 8 th
and 9th c .
From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern
Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who followed in
the footsteps of traders.
In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of
Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval period, played very
important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and
other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine.
Cont’d…
Islam was introduced into Somali territories in
8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of
Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up
Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage
centers(shrines) have been the depositories of
cultures, traditions and literature of local
Muslims.
Cont’d…
Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singular
tariqa).
Among these, the Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-
Qadir al-Jilani, 1077-1166) emphasized collective devotion (hadra).
Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of
Fez in Morocco (1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban and veil.
It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu l-Abbas Ahmad b.
Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737- 1815) and Summaniyya
(named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni, 1718-75).
The sheiks of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region.