CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION
• A chopper is a power electronic device which converts a constant
DC voltage input into a variable DC voltage output.
• It is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch.
APPLICATIONS
• The applications of choppers are mainly in industries which require
power from dc voltage sources.
These include
• Subway cars
• Trolley cars
• Battery operated vehicles
• Battery charging.
Dc chopper - A dc chopper is a static device (switch) used to obtain variable dc
voltage from a source of constant dc voltage.
The dc chopper offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance,
small size, smooth control and for many applications, lower cost, than motor-
generator sets or gas tubes approach.
DC choppers can be classified as
I- According to input/output voltage levels
(a).step- down chopper (output voltage < input voltage)
(b).step- up chopper (output voltage >
input voltage)
Basic chopper configuration
II - According to the direction of output voltage and current.
(a) Class A type chopper
(b) Class B type chopper
(c) Class C type chopper
(d) Class D type chopper
(e) Class E type chopper
The voltage and current directions for above classes are shown in figure
Quadrant(s) of Voltage Current
Class Application
Operation (VoV_o) (IoI_o)
A I + + Forward motoring
B II + – Regenerative braking
Motoring +Regen
C I & II + ±
braking
D I & IV ± + Reversible drives
E I, II, III, IV ± ± Four-quadrant drives
III - According to commutation method
(a) Voltage commutated chopper
(b) Current commutated chopper
(c) Load commutated chopper
(d) Impulse commutated chopper
STEP DOWN CHOPPER
• The average output voltage across
the load is controlled by varying on
period and
off period (duty cycle) of the switch.
In this the chopper is represented by a switch S1, During the period Ton chopper is
on and load voltage is equal to source voltage [Link] the interval Toff chopper
is off, load current flows through the free wheeling diode F.D(S2).
As a result, load terminals are short circuited by FD and load voltage is therefore
zero during Toff., chopped dc voltage is produced at the load terminals. The load
current as is continuous.
During Ton, load current rises whereas during Toff, load current decays .
The average load voltage Vo is given by
Thus load voltage can be controlled by varying duty cycle.
step up chopper- Basic principle of operation
The average output voltage Vo greater than input voltage Vs can be obtained by a
chopper called step-up chopper.
In this chopper, a large inductor L in series with source voltage Vs .
when the chopper CH is on, the closed current path is as shown in fig(b) and
inductor stores energy during Ton period. When the chopper CH is off,as the
inductor current cannot die down instantaneously, this current is forced to flow
through the diode and load for a time Toff, fig( c).
As the current tends to decrease, polarity of the emf induced in L is reversed as
shown in fig( c).
As a result, voltage across the load, given b V0 = Vs +L(di/dt), exceeds the
source voltage Vs.
The energy input to inductor from the source, during the period Ton, is
Win = (voltage across L)(average current through L) Ton
⎛I I ⎞
Vs ⎜ 1 2 ⎟Ton
. ⎝ 2
During the time Toff, when chopper is
⎠ off, the energy released by inductor to the
load is
Woff = (voltage across L)(average current through L) Toff
⎛ I1 I 2
(V0 Vs ).⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎟.Tof
⎞⎠ f
Considering the system to be lossless, these two energies given by the above
equations will be equal.
Vs .⎛ I1 I 2 ⎟⎞T
⎝ 2 ⎠ on
⎜
⎛I1 I2 ⎞
(V0 s⎜ .
V ). ⎝ 2 ⎟Toff
⎠
[Link] VoToff [Link]
Vs (Ton Toff )
VoToff
Vs .T
[Link] VoToff Vs .Toff
T T 1
or V V s s
o s off
T V T T on V 1
It is seen that average voltage across the load can be stepped up by varying
the duty cycle.
If chopper is always off, α =0 and V0 = Vs.
If this chopper is always on, α =1, and V0 =∞(infinity)
Time R atio Control a n d Current Limit Control
In DC-DC converters, the average output voltage is controlled by varying the alpha (α)
value. This is achieved by varying the Duty Cycle of the switching pulses. Duty cycle can be
1 Time Ratio Control
varied usually
. in 2 ways:
Current Limit Control
2.
both the ways of varying the duty cycle. Duty Cycle is the ratio of ‘On Time’ to ‘Time
Period of a pulse’.
Time Ratio Control:
As the name suggest, here the time ratio (i.e. the duty cycle ratio Ton/T) is varied.
This kind of control
Pulse Width can be achieved
Modulation using 2 ways:
(PWM)
Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
In this technique, the time period is kept constant, but the ‘On Time’ or the ‘OFF Time’ is
varied. Using this, the duty cycle ratio can be varied. Since the ON time or the ‘pulse width’ is
getting changed in this method, so it is popularly known as Pulse width modulation.
Pulse Width Modulation
Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)
In this control method, the ‘Time Period’ is varied while keeping either of ‘On Time’ or ‘OFF
time’ as constant. In this method, since the time period gets changed, so the frequency also changes
accordingly, so this method is known as frequency modulation control.
Frequency Modulation Control
Current Limit Control:
As is obvious from its name, in this control strategy, a specific limit is applied on the
current variation.
In this method, current is allowed to fluctuate or change only between 2 values i.e.
maximum current (I max) and minimum current (I min). When the current is at minimum value, the
chopper is switched ON. After this instance, the current starts increasing, and when it reaches up to
maximum value, the chopper is switched off allowing the current to fall back to minimum value.
This cycle continues again and again.
Current Limit Control
TYPES OF CHOPPER
TYPE-A CHOPPER
• It is characterized by the flow of load from input to output.
• The output voltage is less than input voltage.
• Vo and Io are always positive hence 1st quadrant operation.
• In type A chopper the power flow will be always from source to the load. As
the average voltage V0 is less than the dc input voltage V s .
Type-B chopper
It is characterized by negative load current flowing from load to source It is a
step up chopper.
Vo positive Io negative second quadrant operation.
when Switch CH1 is ON, output current driven by E decreases and inductor
charges. Current flow is from source to load.
when switch CH1 of OFF, Vo>Vin. Current flow from load to source.
TYPE-C CHOPPER
It is obtained by connecting type-A and type-B in parallel.
It operates in 1st and 2nd quadrant .
Load voltage is always positive.
Io is either positive or negative.
When CH1 and FD conducts, current flow from source to load.
When CH2 and D2 conducts, current flow from load to source.
Voltage polarity is same in both the cases.
TYPE-D CHOPPER
It consists of two switches and two diodes in bridge like configuration.
When T1 and T2 are on, current Is flow from source to load with load
voltage less than source voltage.
When > 0.5, Ton > T off and Vo= +Vs .
If < 0.5, Ton< T off and current Io flows from load to source through D1
and D2.
Io is same and Vo is negative, Vo= -V s
When Ton=T off, = 0.5, Vo= 0.
TYPE-E CHOPPER
FIRST QUADRANT
Type E or the four quadrant chopper. It consists of four semiconductor
switches and four diodes arranged in antiparallel.
CH1 will be operated. The load current will be flowing through + V supply –
CH1 –load – CH4 .
➡ Motor runs forward and draws power from source.
SECOND QUADRANT
Switch ON: CH₂ (CH₁, CH₃, CH₄ OFF).
Current path (when CH₂ conducts): Load→CH2→Vs
Inductor stores energy during ON.
When CH₂ turns OFF, energy in LL returns to source through D₁ and D₄:
Load→D4→Source→D1→Load
Load voltage becomes negative, current remains positive. ➡ Regenerative braking
(power returned to source while current still forward).
THIRD QUADRANT
Switches ON: CH₂ and CH₃.
Current path: Vs→CH3→Load(reversedirection)→CH2→Vs
Load voltage V0=−Vs, current negative.
➡ Motor runs in reverse direction, drawing power from source.
FOURTH QUADRANT
• Switch ON: CH₄ (others OFF).
• Current path (when CH₄ ON): Load(negativecurrent)→CH4→Vs
• Inductor stores [Link] CH₄ turns OFF, load current freewheels through D₂ and
D₃:Load→D2→Source→D3→Load.
• Load voltage positive, but current negative.
• ➡ Reverse regenerative braking (power fed back to source during reverse running).
Buck Regulators
• In a buck regulator, the average output voltage Va is less than the input voltage, Vs—hence
the name “buck,” a very popular regulator
• The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a power BJT is shown in Figure 5.17a, and this is
like a stepdown converter. Transistor Q1 acts as a controlled switch and diode Dm is an
uncontrolled switch.
• They operate as two single-pole-single-through (SPST) bidirectional switches. The circuit in
Figure 5.17a is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure 5.17b.
• The circuit operation can be divided into two modes.
• Mode 1 begins when transistor Q1 is switched on at t = 0. The input current, which rises,
flows through filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, and load resistor R.
• Mode 2 begins when transistor Q1 is switched off at t = t1. The freewheeling diode Dm
conducts due to energy stored in the inductor, and the inductor current continues to flow
through L, C, load, and diode Dm.
• The inductor current falls until transistor Q1 is switched on again in the next cycle. The
equivalent circuits for the modes of operation are shown in Figure 5.17c. The waveforms for
the voltages and currents are shown in Figure 5.17d for a continuous current flow in the
inductor L.
• It is assumed that the current rises and falls linearly. In practical circuits, the switch has a
finite, nonlinear resistance. Its effect can generally be negligible in most applications.
Depending on the switching frequency, filter inductance, and capacitance, the inductor current
could be discontinuos.
Boost Regulators
In a boost regulator [8, 9] the output voltage is greater than the input voltage—
hence the name “boost.”
A boost regulator using a power MOSFET is shown in Figure 5.18a. Transistor M1
acts as a controlled switch and diode Dm is an uncontrolled switch. The circuit in
Figure 5.18a is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure 5.18b.
The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when
transistor. M1 is switched on at t = 0. The input current, which rises, flows through
inductor L and transistor Q1.
Mode 2 begins when transistor M1 is switched off at t = t1. The current that was
flowing through the transistor would now flow through L, C, load, and diode Dm.
The inductor current falls until transistor M1 is turned on again in the next cycle. The
energy stored in inductor L is transferred to the load.
The equivalent circuits for the modes of operation are shown in Figure 5.18c. The
waveforms for voltages and currents are shown in Figure 5.18d for continuousload
current, assuming that the currentrises orfallslinearly.
Buck–Boost Regulator
• A buck–boost regulator provides an output voltage that may be less than or
greater than the input voltage—hence the name “buck–boost”; the output
voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. This regulator is also
known as an inverting regulator.
• The circuit arrangement of a buck–boost regulator is shown in Figure 5.19a.
Transistor Q1 acts as a controlled switch and diode Dm is an uncontrolled switch.
They operate as two SPST current-bidirectional switches.
• The circuit in Figure 5.19a is often represented by two switches as shown in Figure
5.19b. The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. During mode 1,
transistor Q1 is turned on and diode Dm is reversed biased. The input current,
which rises, flows through inductor L and transistor Q1.
• During mode 2, transistor Q1 is switched off and the current, which was flowing
through inductor L, would flow through L, C, Dm, and the load. The energy stored
in inductor L would be transferred to the load and the inductor current would fall
until transistor Q1 is switched on again in the next cycle.
• The equivalent circuits for the modes are shown in Figure 5.19c. The waveforms
for steadystate voltages and currents of the buck–boost regulator are shown in
Figure 5.19d for a continuous load current.