Chapter 7:

Types of
Methodology
(Qualitative)
Prepared by: Dr. Nur Ajrun Khalid
Date: 28th November 2024.
Learning Objectives
1. Explain the importance of case study designs to the study of political
phenomena.
2. Discuss important steps in qualitative data analysis: data reduction,data
display and drawing conclusions

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Introduction
• Qualitative data are data in the form of words. Examples of qualitative data are
interview notes, transcripts of focus groups, answers to open-ended questions,
transcriptions of video recordings, accounts of experiences with a product on the
Internet, news articles and the like.
• Qualitative data can come from a wide variety of primary sources and/or
secondary sources, such as individuals, focus groups, company records,
government publications and the Internet. The analysis of qualitative data is aimed
at making valid inferences from the often overwhelming amount of collected data.

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• The first step in qualitative data analysis is
concerned with data reduction.
• Data reduction refers to the process of
selecting, coding and categorizing the data.
• Data display refers to ways of presenting
the data. A selection of quotes, a matrix, a
graph or a chart illustrating patterns in the
data may help the researcher (and
eventually the reader) to understand the
data.
• In this way, data displays may help you to
draw conclusions based on patterns in the
reduced set of data.
• Data coding may help you simultaneously
to develop ideas on how the data may be
displayed, as well as to draw
• some preliminary conclusions. In turn,
preliminary conclusions may feed back into
the way the raw data are coded, categorized
and displayed.

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 Choosing among Data Collection Methods (1. Interview)
Large Image Slide
• A political scientist’s choice of data collection method depends on many factors.
One important consideration is the validity of the measurements that a
particular method will permit.

For example, a researcher who wants to measure the crime rate of different cities may feel that the crime rates reported
by local police departments to the Federal Bureau of Investigation are not sufficiently accurate to support a research
project.

• The researcher may be concerned that some departments over report and some underreport various criminal acts or that
some victims of crimes may fail to report the crimes to the police, hence rendering that method of collecting data and
measuring the crime rate unacceptable.

• Therefore, the researcher may decide that a more accurate indication of the crime rate can be attained by interviewing a
sample of citizens in different cities and asking them how much crime they have experienced themselves.

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Example of Interviewing Questions (open ended)

How would you rate the visibility of police in your community?

Have you ever interacted with the police, and if so, what was your experience?
Community Engagement:

Are there community programs or initiatives aimed at reducing crime in your area?
Have you participated in any community watch or crime prevention activities?

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 Choosing among Data Collection Methods
(Elite Interviewing)
• Elites—individuals with special
knowledge about topics or events.
• These individuals are uniquely situated
to possess information and perspectives
critical to an accurate understanding of
a research topic.
• On the one hand, anyone can be viewed
as an elite insofar as he or she has
information that the researcher does not
have.
• On the other hand, only a small number
of individuals may have firsthand
knowledge, for example, about how a
president reached a decision to go to
war.
• How to approach these individuals and
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to them warrants special consideration
 The Practicalities of Interviewing

(1)be fully prepared before conducting any interviews. Preparation should include reading
all secondary sources on the subject, as well as primary sources if they are available, in order
to determine what is known and what is not known. It will also help you identify key
individuals to be interviewed.

(2) Design an appropriate method of initial contact so you can avoid making cold calls.
An initial letter on professional letterhead or a letter of introduction from a local institution or
person with standing in the community may facilitate access. In your letter, explain why the
person is important to your research. You might mention who referred you to the
person or people you have already interviewed (if you have their permission to identify them).

(3) Think about how you want to present yourself. You want to balance the need to
establish that you are knowledgeable about your topic so that you will be taken seriously against
appearing to try to impress the interviewee or to be so knowledgeable that you intimidate the
interviewee. Consider how to use nonverbal cues to encourage an interviewee to elaborate
further and tactful ways to get interviewees to consider different perspectives or to return to a
question you think they have not answered fully.
 The Practicalities of Interviewing

(4)Record interviews if possible. This will allow you to concentrate on what the interviewee is
saying and to think of follow-up questions. Having recordings enhances accuracy and reduces
challenges regarding
subjective interpretation. If individual respondents do not wish to be on the record, then ask for
permission to quote them without identifying them by name.

***Establishing the meaningfulness and validity of the interview data is important. Bias may
come from both the interviewer and the interviewee***
• if the goal of interviews is to find out the truth about what happened —how was the bill
passed, how was the deal cut, how was the judge chosen?—there is a very high risk of finding
one interviewee more persuasive than the others and having that one interview strongly
shape our understanding of the issue.

• It’s easy to make oneself believe that one account is more accurate than another because a
subject was more knowledgeable or more detailed in her answers, rather than admitting that
we liked that person better or her story was closer to our own take on the situation
Choosing among Data Collection Methods (2.
OBSEVATIONS)

• referred to as field studies—open-ended and wide-ranging

observation in a natural setting. In field studies, researchers typically
ask questions of the people they are observing; thus, field studies
involve collection of interview data.
• One advantage of observing people in a natural setting is that people
generally behave as they would ordinarily.

• For example, suggested that researchers interested in studying the

decision making styles of women running for public office will obtain
more valid information by spending time with campaigns in
order to gather information as decisions are being made than by
relying on postelection questionnaires or debriefing sessions.

• Another example: Observing a city council or school board meeting or

a public hearing on the licensing of a locally undesirable land use will
allow you to know and understand what happened at the
event far better than reading official minutes or transcripts
 Choosing among Data Collection Methods (Observations)
Large Image Slide

• A good example of a field study is Ya-Chung Chuang’s study of democratization in Taiwan, Democracy on
Trial: Social Movements and Cultural Politics in Post authoritarian Taiwan, in which he examined the interaction
among individuals in a community and between individuals and institutions.

• To understand how individuals overcome complex problems, Chuang interviewed community and ethnic
leaders, examined coalitions of community organizations, and interacted with residents in their communities.

• This method allowed Chuang to better understand a wide range of sociopolitical activities like community
referendums for collective decision making and cultural walking tours in the community.

• Chuang’s personal experiences and firsthand observations in local communities gave him a vantage point that
could not be acquired otherwise.

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 Choosing among Data Collection Methods
(OBSEVATIONS)

• participant observation,
the investigator is “both an actor and a spectator”—that is, a regular participant in the
activities of the group being observed.

• nonparticipant observation, the observer does not participate in group activities or

become a member of the group or community. For example, an investigator interested in
hearings held by public departments of transportation or city council meetings could
observe those proceedings without becoming a participant.
 Choosing among Data Collection Methods (2.
OBSEVATIONS)

 A political scientist is also influenced by the reactivity of a data

collection method—the effect of the data collection itself on the
phenomena being measured.

 When people know their behavior is being observed and know or can guess the
purpose of the observation, they may alter their behavior.

 As a result, the observed behavior may be an unnatural reaction to the process of being
observed.
 People may be reluctant, for example, to admit to an interviewer that they hold views or
engage in behavior that is unpopular or embarrassing or even immoral or illegal.

 Thus, many researchers prefer unobtrusive or nonreactive measures of political behavior,

because they believe that the resulting data are more accurate.
Unobtrusive or nonreactive measures in research involve collecting data without directly
influencing or intruding upon the subjects being studied. In the context of political behavior, here
are some examples of unobtrusive measures:
1. Content Analysis of Media:

Analyzing the content of newspapers, magazines, or online media to understand the

framing, tone, and coverage of political events without directly interacting with
individuals.

2. Archival Research:

Examining historical records, documents, and artifacts related to political activities,

policies, or public sentiments to understand long-term trends.

3. Public Opinion Poll Archives:

Analyzing historical public opinion polls to identify patterns and changes in political
attitudes and behaviors over time.

4. Election Results:

Studying historical election results to identify voting patterns, turnout rates, and
shifts in political preferences without directly surveying voters.
5. Social Network Analysis:

Examining social networks and interactions on platforms like Twitter or Facebook to understand
the flow of political information and the influence of key individuals without direct involvement.

6. Issue of Currency:

Examining the portrayal of political figures or symbols on currency to understand historical and
cultural perspectives without directly surveying individuals.

7. Graveyard Voting Records:

Analyzing voting patterns in cemeteries to estimate historical voter turnout without conducting
live surveys.

8. Protest Artifacts:

Studying artifacts from protests, such as posters, banners, or graffiti, to understand public
sentiments and political messages without direct interaction.

9. Environmental Print:

Analyzing public spaces for political slogans, posters, or graffiti to gauge the prevailing political
discourse without interacting with individuals directly.
Content Analysis (qualitative method)

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 Conclusion

Qualitative research is the backbone of many investigations into

interesting and important political science phenomena. Once researchers
have selected their case or cases, they then must collect data to test their
research hypotheses. As evidenced by our discussion of observation,
interviewing, and document analysis, qualitative research can be quite
challenging in terms of gathering useful data as well as demonstrating its
reliability and validity.
Nevertheless, the investigative process can be exciting and rewarding.

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