RESEARCH DESIGN

CHAPTER 5
PREPARED BY: DR. NUR AJRUN KHALID
NOVEMBER 14TH 2024
 AFTER COMPLETING CHAPTER FIVE, YOU
SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

• 1. EXPLAIN WHAT IS MEANT BY A RESEARCH DESIGN.

• 2. DEVELOP AN APPROPRIATE RESEARCH DESIGN FOR ANY GIVEN STUDY.
• 3. EXPLAIN WHY A RESEARCHER MIGHT BE CONSTRAINED TO SETTLE FOR
LESS THAN THE ‘IDEAL’ RESEARCH DESIGN.
• 4. DEMONSTRATE AWARENESS OF THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER IN THE AREA
OF RESEARCH DESIGN.
 WHAT IS ?

• A RESEARCH DESIGN IS A BLUEPRINT OR PLAN FOR THE COLLECTION,

MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS OF DATA, CREATED TO ANSWER YOUR
RESEARCH EMPIRICAL QUESTIONS.
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN

• A STRATEGY IS A PLAN FOR ACHIEVING A CERTAIN GOAL.

• A RESEARCH STRATEGY WILL HELP YOU TO MEET YOUR RESEARCH OBJECTIVE(S) AND
TO ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF YOUR STUDY.
• THE CHOICE FOR A PARTICULAR RESEARCH STRATEGY WILL THEREFORE DEPEND ON
THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVE(S) AND (THE TYPE OF) RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF YOUR
STUDY,
• BUT ALSO ON YOUR VIEWPOINT ON WHAT MAKES GOOD RESEARCH AND ON
PRACTICAL ASPECTS SUCH AS ACCESS TO DATA SOURCES AND TIME CONSTRAINTS.
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN
• (1) EXPERIMENTS
• EXPERIMENTS ARE USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH CAUSAL RESEARCH AND/OR A HYPOTHETICO-
DEDUCTIVE APPROACH TO RESEARCH. THE PURPOSE OF AN EXPERIMENT IS TO STUDY
CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES.
• EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS ARE LESS USEFUL OR APPROPRIATE FOR ANSWERING EXPLORATORY
AND DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS.
• IN AN EXPERIMENT, THE RESEARCHER MANIPULATES THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE TO STUDY
THE EFFECT OF THIS MANIPULATION ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE. IN OTHER WORDS, THE
RESEARCHER DELIBERATELY CHANGES A CERTAIN VARIABLE (OR CERTAIN VARIABLES), FOR
INSTANCE ‘REWARD SYSTEM’, TO ESTABLISH WHETHER (AND TO WHAT EXTENT) THIS CHANGE
(E.G., DIFFERENT TYPES OF REWARD SYSTEMS) WILL PRODUCE A CHANGE IN ANOTHER
VARIABLE, IN THIS EXAMPLE ‘PRODUCTIVITY’.
 CASE STUDY
• EXPERIMENTAL
• AN EXAMPLE IS THE STUDY ON TAX COMPLIANCE
CONDUCTED BY MALAYSIA’S INLAND REVENUE
BOARD (LHDN), WHICH HAS EXPERIMENTED WITH
DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES TO
ENCOURAGE TAX FILING AND PAYMENT.
• IN ONE STUDY, TAXPAYERS RECEIVED REMINDERS
WITH VARYING TONES—SOME FOCUSED ON
PENALTIES, WHILE OTHERS ON POSITIVE CIVIC
DUTY.
• THE FINDINGS OFFERED INSIGHTS ON WHICH
MESSAGING STRATEGIES IMPROVED TAX
COMPLIANCE, HELPING THE LHDN REFINE ITS
OUTREACH.
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN

• (2) SURVEY RESEARCH

• A SURVEY IS A SYSTEM FOR COLLECTING INFORMATION FROM OR ABOUT PEOPLE TO
DESCRIBE, COMPARE OR EXPLAIN THEIR KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR.
• ALLOWS THE RESEARCHER TO COLLECT QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA ON MANY
TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS. SURVEYS ARE COMMONLY USED IN EXPLORATORY AND
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH TO COLLECT DATA ABOUT PEOPLE, EVENTS OR SITUATIONS.
• FOR INSTANCE, SURVEYS ARE OFTEN TAKEN ON THE SUBJECT OF CONSUMER DECISION-
MAKING, CUSTOMER SATISFACTION, JOB SATISFACTION, THE USE OF HEALTH SERVICES.
• POPULAR SURVEY INSTRUMENTS ARE SELF-ADMINISTERED INTERVIEWS AND
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
 CASE STUDY

• SURVEY RESEARCH
• THE PUBLIC PERCEPTION SURVEY ON THE MALAYSIAN
ANTI-CORRUPTION COMMISSION (MACC) IS AN
EXAMPLE WHERE SURVEYS HAVE BEEN USED TO
GAUGE PUBLIC TRUST AND PERCEPTIONS REGARDING
ANTI-CORRUPTION EFFORTS.
• THIS SURVEY HELPS MEASURE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
MACC’S PROGRAMS AND PUBLIC TRUST LEVELS,
PROVIDING THE AGENCY WITH CRITICAL DATA ON
HOW TO IMPROVE TRANSPARENCY AND PUBLIC
ENGAGEMENT.
•Perceptions of corruption: Public opinion on the extent and prevalence of corruption in
different sectors, such as government, business, and law enforcement.
•Effectiveness of anti-corruption measures: How well the public believes that the
MACC and other institutions are combating corruption.
•Trust in the MACC: Public confidence in the commission's ability to handle corruption
cases fairly and transparently.
•Public awareness: Understanding of anti-corruption laws, reporting mechanisms, and
the role of citizens in fighting corruptio
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN
• (3) ETHNOGRAPHY
• ETHNOGRAPHY IS A RESEARCH STRATEGY THAT HAS ITS ROOTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. IT IS A STRATEGY IN
WHICH THE RESEARCHER ‘CLOSELY OBSERVES, RECORDS, AND ENGAGES IN THE DAILY LIFE OF
ANOTHER CULTURE AND THEN WRITES ACCOUNTS OF THIS CULTURE, EMPHASIZING DESCRIPTIVE
DETAIL.
• IT THUS AIMS TO GENERATE AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE CULTURE AND BEHAVIOR OF A SOCIAL
GROUP FROM AN ‘INSIDER’S POINT OF VIEW’. NOTE THAT PLATFORMS SUCH AS FACEBOOK ARE ALSO
BECOMING CRUCIAL TOOLS FOR ETHNOGRAPHERS BECAUSE MUCH SOCIAL LIFE NOW EXISTS ‘ONLINE’.
• ETHNOGRAPHY AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ARE SOMETIMES USED INTERCHANGEABLY IN THE
LITERATURE. FOR SOME, BOTH ETHNOGRAPHY AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ARE RESEARCH
STRATEGIES THAT INVOLVE SPENDING LONG PERIODS WATCHING PEOPLE AND TALKING TO THEM
ABOUT WHAT THEY ARE DOING, THINKING AND SAYING, WITH THE OBJECTIVE OF GENERATING AN
UNDERSTANDING OF THE SOCIAL GROUP UNDER STUDY
 CASE STUDY

• ETHNOGRAPHY
• ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES HAVE BEEN CONDUCTED ON STREET-
LEVEL BUREAUCRATS IN MALAYSIA, PARTICULARLY IN
SOCIAL WELFARE DEPARTMENTS AND IMMIGRATION
OFFICES.
• RESEARCHERS OBSERVED HOW OFFICERS INTERACT WITH
CITIZENS, MANAGE LIMITED RESOURCES, AND MAKE
DISCRETIONARY DECISIONS, ESPECIALLY UNDER PRESSURE IN
HIGH-DEMAND CONTEXTS LIKE IMMIGRATION PROCESSING.

• THIS HELPS IN UNDERSTANDING THE CHALLENGES STREET-

LEVEL BUREAUCRATS FACE IN ADHERING TO POLICY GUIDELINES
WHILE MANAGING COMPLEX, REAL-WORLD DEMANDS.
• ONE NOTABLE EXAMPLE OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ON STREET-LEVEL
BUREAUCRATS IN MALAYSIA IS THE STUDY OF IMMIGRATION OFFICERS AT BORDER
CONTROL POINTS. RESEARCHERS HAVE OBSERVED HOW OFFICERS APPLY RULES
REGARDING IMMIGRATION PERMITS AND DETENTION, OFTEN USING THEIR DISCRETION
TO ADDRESS THE NUANCES OF EACH CASE. THE STUDY MIGHT EXAMINE HOW
CORRUPTION, PERSONAL BIASES, AND VARYING LEVELS OF TRAINING INFLUENCE THE
OFFICERS' DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES.
• ANOTHER EXAMPLE COULD BE IN SOCIAL WELFARE DEPARTMENTS, WHERE
RESEARCHERS OBSERVE HOW SOCIAL WORKERS HANDLE CASES INVOLVING
MARGINALIZED COMMUNITIES. THE STUDY COULD EXPLORE HOW THESE
BUREAUCRATS DECIDE WHICH INDIVIDUALS OR FAMILIES QUALIFY FOR ASSISTANCE,
AND HOW THEY DEAL WITH ETHICAL DILEMMAS SUCH AS FRAUD OR CONFLICTING
NEEDS AMONG APPLICANTS.
• IN SUMMARY, ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF STREET-LEVEL BUREAUCRATS IN MALAYSIA
OFFER A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF HOW PUBLIC SERVICES ARE ACTUALLY
DELIVERED ON THE GROUND AND PROVIDE INSIGHTS INTO THE COMPLEXITIES OF
POLICY IMPLEMENTATION, BUREAUCRATIC DISCRETION, AND PUBLIC TRUST.
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN
• (4) CASE STUDIES
• CASE STUDIES FOCUS ON COLLECTING INFORMATION ABOUT A SPECIFIC OBJECT,
EVENT OR ACTIVITY, SUCH AS A PARTICULAR PERSON, DEPARTMENT, BUSINESS UNIT OR
ORGANIZATION. IN CASE STUDIES, THE CASE IS THE INDIVIDUAL, THE GROUP, THE
ORGANIZATION, THE EVENT OR THE SITUATION THE RESEARCHER IS INTERESTED IN.
• THE IDEA BEHIND A CASE STUDY IS THAT IN ORDER TO OBTAIN A CLEAR PICTURE OF A
PROBLEM ONE MUST EXAMINE THE REAL-LIFE SITUATION FROM VARIOUS ANGLES AND
PERSPECTIVES USING MULTIPLE METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION.
 CASE STUDIES

• THE RESPONSE TO THE 2014 AND 2015 FLOODING IN

KELANTAN SERVES AS AN INSIGHTFUL CASE STUDY FOR
EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND INTERAGENCY
COORDINATION.
• STUDIES EXAMINED HOW AGENCIES LIKE THE NATIONAL
DISASTER MANAGEMENT AGENCY (NADMA), LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS, AND NGOS COORDINATED THEIR
EFFORTS.

• IT HIGHLIGHTED ISSUES LIKE LOGISTICS, RESOURCE

ALLOCATION, AND COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES THAT
CAN AFFECT THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISASTER
RESPONSE, EMPHASIZING THE NEED FOR IMPROVED
COORDINATION AMONG STAKEHOLDERS.
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN
• (5) GROUNDED THEORY
• GROUNDED THEORY IS A SYSTEMATIC SET OF PROCEDURES TO DEVELOP AN
INDUCTIVELY DERIVED THEORY FROM THE DATA IMPORTANT TOOLS OF GROUNDED
THEORY ARE THEORETICAL SAMPLING, CODING AND CONSTANT COMPARISON.
• THEORETICAL SAMPLING IS ‘THE PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION FOR GENERATING
THEORY WHEREBY THE ANALYST JOINTLY COLLECTS, CODES AND ANALYZES THE DATA
AND DECIDES WHAT DATA TO COLLECT NEXT AND WHERE TO FIND THEM, IN ORDER TO
DEVELOP HIS THEORY AS IT EMERGES’
 CASE STUDY

• GROUNDED THEORY A STUDY ON COMMUNITY BASED HEALTH INITIATIVES IN

RURAL MALAYSIA USED GROUNDED THEORY TO EXPLORE HOW COMMUNITY
HEALTH WORKERS ENGAGE WITH RURAL POPULATIONS TO IMPROVE HEALTH
OUTCOMES.

• DATA FROM INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS OF THESE WORKERS LED TO

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A THEORY ON EFFECTIVE ENGAGEMENT STRATEGIES,
SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL SENSITIVITY AND COMMUNITY
TRUST IN PUBLIC HEALTH OUTREACH.
 ELEMENTS OF
RESEARCH
DESIGN
• (6) ACTION RESEARCH
• ACTION RESEARCH IS PRACTICAL AND PROBLEM-SOLVING IN NATURE. IT IS BASED ON
A CYCLIC PROCESS OF ACTION,
• REFLECTION ON THE RESULTS OF ACTION AND FURTHER ACTION BASED ON THIS
REFLECTION. ACTION RESEARCHERS
• ARE VERY OFTEN PROFESSIONAL PRACTITIONERS WHO USE THIS STRATEGY AS A
MEANS OF RESEARCHING INTO AND
• CHANGING THEIR OWN PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR
 CASE STUDY

• ACTION RESEARCH
• THE PENANG PARTICIPATORY BUDGETING INITIATIVE IS A
NOTABLE EXAMPLE OF ACTION RESEARCH. IN THIS
INITIATIVE, THE PENANG STATE GOVERNMENT WORKED
DIRECTLY WITH CITIZENS TO IDENTIFY BUDGET PRIORITIES,
ALLOCATE FUNDS, AND EVALUATE OUTCOMES.

• THROUGH A PARTICIPATORY BUDGETING PROCESS,

CITIZENS WERE INVOLVED IN DECISION-MAKING, AND THE
RESULTS WERE USED TO ADJUST THE PROCESS EACH YEAR,
IMPROVING THE PROGRAM’S RESPONSIVENESS TO PUBLIC
NEEDS AND FOSTERING TRUST IN LOCAL GOVERNANCE.
 UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS REFERS TO THE LEVEL OF AGGREGATION AT WHICH

INFORMATION IS ANALYZED AND CONCLUSIONS ARE DRAWN.

• (1) INDIVIDUALS
• IF, FOR INSTANCE, THE PROBLEM STATEMENT FOCUSES ON HOW TO RAISE THE
MOTIVATIONAL LEVELS OF EMPLOYEES IN GENERAL, THEN WE ARE INTERESTED IN
INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYEES IN THE ORGANIZATION AND HAVE TO FIND OUT WHAT WE
CAN DO TO RAISE THEIR MOTIVATION.
• HERE THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS IS THE INDIVIDUAL.
 UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• (2) DYADS
• IF THE RESEARCHER IS INTERESTED IN STUDYING TWO-PERSON
INTERACTIONS, THEN SEVERAL TWO-PERSON GROUPS, ALSO KNOWN AS
DYADS, WILL BECOME THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS.
• ANALYSIS OF HUSBAND–WIFE INTERACTIONS IN FAMILIES AND SUPERVISOR–
SUBORDINATE RELATIONSHIPS IN THE WORKPLACE ARE GOOD EXAMPLES OF
DYADS AS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS
 UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• (3) GROUPS
• HOWEVER, IF THE PROBLEM STATEMENT IS RELATED TO GROUP
EFFECTIVENESS OR IF WE WANT TO COMPARE TWO GROUPS (E.G.,
DEPARTMENTS), THEN THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS WILL BE AT THE GROUP LEVEL.
• IN OTHER WORDS, EVEN THOUGH WE MAY GATHER RELEVANT DATA FROM
ALL INDIVIDUALS COMPRISING, SAY, SIX GROUPS, WE AGGREGATE THE
INDIVIDUAL DATA INTO GROUP DATA SO AS TO SEE THE DIFFERENCES
AMONG THE SIX GROUPS.
 UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• (4) ORGANIZATION
• IF WE ARE COMPARING DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS IN THE ORGANIZATION,
THEN THE DATA ANALYSIS WILL BE DONE AT THE DEPARTMENTAL LEVEL –
THAT IS, THE INDIVIDUALS IN THE DEPARTMENT WILL BE TREATED AS ONE
UNIT – AND COMPARISONS MADE BY TREATING THE DEPARTMENT AS THE
UNIT OF ANALYSIS.
 EXAMPLE

• INDIVIDUALS AS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• THE CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER OF A MANUFACTURING COMPANY WANTS TO
KNOW HOW MANY OF THE STAFF WOULD BE INTERESTED IN ATTENDING A
THREE-DAY SEMINAR ON MAKING APPROPRIATE INVESTMENT DECISIONS.
• FOR THIS PURPOSE, DATA WILL HAVE TO BE COLLECTED FROM EACH
INDIVIDUAL STAFF MEMBER AND THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS IS THE INDIVIDUAL.
 EXAMPLE

• DYADS AS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• HAVING READ ABOUT THE BENEFITS OF MENTORING, A HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGER WANTS TO
FIRST IDENTIFY THE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN THREE DEPARTMENTS OF THE ORGANIZATION WHO
ARE IN MENTORING RELATIONSHIPS, AND THEN FIND OUT WHAT THE JOINTLY PERCEIVED BENEFITS
(I.E., BY BOTH THE MENTOR AND THE ONE MENTORED) OF SUCH A RELATIONSHIP ARE.
• HERE, ONCE THE MENTOR AND THE MENTORED PAIRS ARE IDENTIFIED, THEIR JOINT PERCEPTIONS
CAN BE OBTAINED BY TREATING EACH PAIR AS ONE UNIT.
• HENCE, IF THE MANAGER WANTS DATA FROM A SAMPLE OF 10 PAIRS, HE WILL HAVE TO DEAL WITH
20 INDIVIDUALS, A PAIR AT A TIME. THE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM EACH PAIR WILL BE A DATA
POINT FOR SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS. THUS, THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS HERE IS THE DYAD.
 EXAMPLE

• GROUPS AS THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• A MANAGER WANTS TO SEE THE PATTERNS OF USAGE OF THE NEWLY INSTALLED
INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) BY THE PRODUCTION, SALES AND OPERATIONS PERSONNEL.
• HERE, THREE GROUPS OF PERSONNEL ARE INVOLVED AND INFORMATION ON THE
NUMBER OF TIMES THE IS IS USED BY EACH MEMBER IN EACH OF THE THREE GROUPS,
AS WELL AS OTHER RELEVANT ISSUES, WILL BE COLLECTED AND ANALYZED.
• THE FINAL RESULTS WILL INDICATE THE MEAN USAGE OF THE SYSTEM PER DAY OR
MONTH FOR EACH GROUP. HERE, THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS IS THE GROUP.