All flowering plants (angiosperms) show sexual reproduction. Flowers are the sites of sexual reproduction.

PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

- Several hormonal and structural changes result in Microsporogenesis:
differentiation &development of the floral primordium. - As the anther develops, each
- Inflorescences bear the floral buds and then the flowers.
sporogenous cell (microspore mother
STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER cell or pollen mother cell) undergoes
meiotic divisions to form microspore
tetrads (microspores arranged in a
cluster of four cells).
- Formation of microspores from pollen mother cell (PMC)
through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
- As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores
dissociate from each other and develop into pollen grains.
- Each microsporangium contains thousands of pollen grains.
They are released with the dehiscence of anther.

A typical flower has 2 parts: Androecium & Gynoecium.

Androecium (male reproductive part)
It consists of a whorl of stamens. Their number and length
are variable in different species.
A stamen has 2 parts:
a. Filament: Long and slender stalk. Its proximal end is
attached to the thalamus or the petal of the flower.
b. Anther: Terminal and typically bilobed. Each lobe has 2 Pollen grain (male gametophyte):
thecae (dithecous). Often a longitudinal groove runs Generally spherical. 25-50 µm in diameter. Cytoplasm is
lengthwise separating the theca. surrounded by a plasma membrane.
Transverse section of anther: A pollen grain has a two-layered wall: exine and intine.
o Exine: Hard outer layer. Made up of sporopollenin (highly
resistant organic material). It can withstand high
temperature and strong acids and alkali. Enzymes cannot
degrade sporopollenin.
Exine has apertures called germ pores where
sporopollenin is absent.
Pollen grains are preserved as fossils due to the presence
- The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four of sporopollenin. Exine exhibits patterns and designs.
microsporangia located at the corners (2 in each lobe). o Intine: Inner wall. It is a thin and continuous layer made
- The microsporangia develop to pollen sacs. They extend up of cellulose and pectin.
longitudinally all through the length of an anther and are A matured pollen grain contains 2 cells:
packed with pollen grains. o Vegetative cell:
Structure of a microsporangium: It is bigger, has
- A typical microsporangiumis near circular in outline. abundant food
- It is surrounded by 4 wall layers: epidermis, endothecium, reserve and a
middle layers & tapetum (innermost layer). large irregularly
- The outer 3 layers give protection and help in dehiscence shaped nucleus.
of anther to release the pollen. o Generative
cell: It is small
- The tapetum nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells
of the tapetumcontain dense cytoplasm and generally have and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. It is
more than one nucleus. spindle shaped with dense cytoplasmand a nucleus.
- In young anther, each microsporangium has sporogenous - Over 60% angiosperms shed their pollen grains at 2-celled
tissue at centre. It consists of compactly arranged stage. In others, generative cell divides mitotically to give
homogenous diploid cells (sporogenous cells). 2 male gametes. Thus pollen grains are shed at 3-celled stage.

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 - The shed pollen grains have to land on the stigma before - Inside the nucellus is embryo sac (female gametophyte).
they lose viability. The viability period of pollen grains is - An ovule generally has a single embryo sac formed froma
variable. It depends on temperature and humidity. megaspore.
- Viability of pollen grains of some cereals (rice, wheat etc.) Megasporogenesis:
is 30 minutes. Some members of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae - It is the formation of megaspores from megaspore mother
&Solanaceae have viability for months. cell (MMC).
Economic importance of pollen grains: - Ovules generally differentiate a single MMC in micropylar
o These are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets are used as food region of the nucellus. It is a large cell containing dense
supplements. Pollen tablets & syrups increase performance cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
of athletes and racehorses. - MMC undergoes meiosis to produce 4 megaspores.
o They are stored for years in liquid nitrogen (-1960C). They
can be used as pollen banks in crop breedingprogrammes.
o Pollen grains of some plants (e.g. Parthenium or carrot
grass) are allergic for some people. It leads to chronic
respiratory disorders (asthma, bronchitis, etc.).
Gynoecium (female reproductive part)
- It may have a single pistil (monocarpellary) or more than
Formation of Female gametophyte (embryo sac):
one pistil (multicarpellary).
- In majority of flowering plants, one megaspore is
- In multicarpellary, the pistils may be fused together
functional while the other three degenerates.
(syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).
- The functional megaspore develops into the female
gametophyte. The embryo sac formation from a single
megaspore is called monosporic development.
- Nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to
formtwo nuclei. They move to the opposite poles, forming
A. Hibiscus pistil. 2-nucleate embryo sac.
[Link], - The nuclei again divide two times forming 4-nucleateand
syncarpouspistil
8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac.
of Papaver.
C. Multicarpellary,
apocarpous
gynoeciumof
Michelia

Each pistil has three parts:

o Stigma: Landing platformfor pollen grains.
o Style: Elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
o Ovary: Basal bulged part. It has ovarian cavity (locule)
in which placenta is located. Arising from the placenta are
the ovules (megasporangia). Number of ovules in an
ovary may be one (wheat, paddy, mango etc.) to many - These divisions are free nuclear, i.e. nuclear divisions are
(papaya, water melon, orchids etc.). not followed immediately by cell wall formation.
- After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading
Structure of Megasporangium (Ovule):
to the organization of the typical female gametophyte.
- Ovule is attached to the placenta by a stalk (funicle). - 6 of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized
- Junction between the body of ovule and funicle is called into cells. Remaining 2 nuclei (polar nuclei) are situated
hilum. below the egg apparatus in the large central cell.
- Each ovule has 1 or 2
Distribution of cells within the embryo sac:
protective envelopes
A typical mature embryo sac is 8-nucleate and 7-celled.
(integuments) except
o 3 cells (2 synergids + one egg cell) are grouped at the
at the tip where a small
micropylar end and form egg apparatus.
opening (micropyle)
Synergids have special cellular thickenings at the
is present.
micropylar tip called filiform apparatus. It helps to
- Opposite the
guide the pollen tubes into the synergid.
micropylar end is the
o 3 cells (antipodals) at the chalazal end.
chalaza (basal part).
o A large central cell with two polar nuclei.
- Enclosed within the integuments, there is a mass of cells
called nucellus. Its cells contain reserve food materials.

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 POLLINATION - But in lower plants, water is a regular mode of transport for
the male gametes. Distribution of some bryophytes &
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
pteridophytes is limited because they need water for the
of a pistil.
transport of male gametes and fertilisation.
Based on the source of pollen, pollination is 3 types:
- In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of
a. Autogamy (self-pollination): It is the transfer of pollen
water by the long stalk and the male flowers or pollen
grains from the anther to stigma of the same flower.
grains are released on to the surface of water. They are
In flowers with exposed anthers &stigma, complete
carried by water currents and reach the female flowers.
autogamy is rare. Autogamy in such flowers requires
- In sea grasses, female flowers remain submerged in water.
synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity. Also,
Pollen grains are long and ribbon like. They are carried
anthers & stigma should be close to each other.
inside the water and reach the stigma.
Plants like Viola (common pansy), Oxalis & Commelina - The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species
produce 2 types of flowers: have a mucilaginous covering to protect from wetting.
• Chasmogamous flowers: They are similar to flowers - Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. In most of aquatic
of other species with exposed anthers and stigma. plants (water hyacinth, water lily etc.), the flowers emerge
• Cleistogamous flowers: They do not open at all. above the level of water for entomophily or anemophily.
Anthers & stigma lie close to each other. They are - Wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful
autogamous. When and do not produce nectar.
anthers dehisce in the
2. Biotic agents (animals)
flower buds, pollengrains
come in contact with - Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating
stigma for pollination. agents. E.g. Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants,
Cleistogamous flowers moths, birds (sunbirds & humming birds) bats, primates
produce assured seed-set (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko
even in the absence of lizard & garden lizard) etc.
pollinators. - Pollination by insects (Entomophily), particularly bees is
Cleistogamy leads to more common.
inbreeding depression. - Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically
b. Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains fromthe adapted for a particular species of animal.
anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant. - Features of insect-pollinated flowers:
It is functionally cross-pollination involving a pollinating o Large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar. Nectar &
agent. But it is genetically similar to autogamy since the pollen grains are the floral rewards for pollination.
pollen grains come from the same plant. o Small flowers forminflorescence to make them visible.
c. Xenogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains fromanther o The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul
to the stigma of a different plant. It brings genetically odours to attract these animals.
different pollen grains to the stigma. o The pollen grains are generally sticky.
- When the animal comes in contact with the anthers and the
Agents of Pollination
stigma, its body gets pollen grains. When it comes in contact
1. Abiotic agents (wind & water) with the stigma, it results in pollination.
Pollination by wind (anemophily): - Some plants provide safe places as floral reward to layeggs.
- More common abiotic agent. E.g. Amorphophallus (It has the tallest flower of 6 feet).
- Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule in each A moth species and the plant Yucca cannot complete their
ovary and numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence. life cycles without each other. The moth deposits its eggs
- E.g. Corncob – the tassels are the stigma and style which in the locule of ovary. The flower gets pollinated bymoth.
wave in the wind to trap pollen grains. Wind-pollination is The larvae come out of the eggs as seeds start developing.
quite common in grasses. - Many insects consume pollen or nectar without bringing
- Ways for effective pollination: about pollination. They are called pollen/nectar robbers.
o The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen. Outbreeding Devices
o Pollen grains are light and non-sticky. Hermaphrodite flowers can undergo self-pollination.
o They often possess well-exposed stamens (for easy
Continued self-pollination results in inbreeding depression.
dispersion of pollens into wind currents).
To avoid self-pollination (autogamy) and encourage cross-
o Large, feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains.
pollination, there are some devices in plants:
Pollination by water (hydrophily): a. Avoiding synchronization: Here, the pollen is released
- It is quite rare. It is limited to about 30 genera, mostly before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes
monocotyledons. E.g. Vallisneria & Hydrilla (fresh receptive before the release of pollen.
water), Zostera (marine sea-grasses) etc. b. Arrangement of anther & stigma at differentpositions.
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 c. Self-incompatibility: It is a genetic mechanism to - In plants which shed pollen in 3-celled condition, pollen
prevent self-pollen (from same flower or other flowers of tubes carry 2 male gametes from the beginning.
the same plant) from fertilization by inhibiting pollen - Pollen tube →ovary →micropyle →ovule →enters one
germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil. of the synergids through filiform apparatus. Filiform
d. Production of unisexual flowers: If male &female apparatus guides the entry of pollen tube.
flowers are present on the same plant (i.e., monoecious,
e.g. castor & maize), it prevents autogamy but not
geitonogamy. In dioecious plants (e.g. papaya), male and
female flowers are present on different plants (dioecy).
This prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.
Pollen-pistil Interaction
- It is a process in which pistil recognizes compatible or
incompatible pollen through
the chemical components - A plant breeder can manipulate pollen-pistil interaction,
produced by them.
even in incompatible pollinations, to get desired hybrids.
- Pistil accepts compatible
pollen and promotes post- Artificial hybridisation
pollination events. It is a crop improvement programme in which desired pollen
- It rejects incompatible grains are used for pollination.
pollen by preventing pollen Steps:
germination or pollen tube o Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the bisexual
growth. flower bud of female parent before the anther dehisces.
- Pollen grain germinates on the o Bagging: Here, emasculated flowers are covered with a
stigma to produce a pollen bag (butter paper) to prevent contamination of its stigma
tube through one of the germ with unwanted pollen.
pores. The contents of pollen grain move into pollen tube. o Pollination: When stigma attains receptivity, pollen
Pollen tube grows through the tissues of stigma and style and grains collected from male parent are dusted on the stigma.
reaches the ovary. o Rebagging the flowers. It is allowed to develop the fruits.
- In plants which shed pollen grains at 2-celled condition (a For unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation.
vegetative cell &a generative cell), the generative cell Female flower buds are bagged before the flowers open.
divides into two male gametes during pollen tube growth.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION
- After entering the synergid, the pollen tube releases 2 male It is an event unique to flowering
gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid. One male plants.
gamete moves towards the egg cell and fuses with its - The central cell after triple fusion
nucleus (syngamy) to form zygote (diploid). becomes the primary endosperm
- The other male gamete moves towards the two polar nuclei cell (PEC) and develops into the
located in the central cell and fuses with them to produce a endosperm while the zygote
triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). As it involves develops into an embryo.
fusion of 3 haploid nuclei, it is called triple fusion.
- Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take
place in an embryo sac, it is called double fertilisation.

POST- FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

Post-fertilisation events: Endosperm & embryo development, - Endospermbecomes cellular due to cell wall formation.
maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) & ovary into fruit. - Tender coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm
Endosperm development (made up of thousands of nuclei) and the surrounding
white kernel is the cellular endosperm.
- Primary endosperm cell (PEC) divides repeatedly to
forma triploid endosperm tissue. Embryo development
- Endospermcells are filled with reserve food materials. - Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac
They are used for nutrition of the developing embryo. where the zygote is situated.
- In common endosperm development, PEN undergoes - Most zygotes divide only after the formation of some
successive nuclear divisions to give free nuclei (free- endosperm. This provides nutrition to developing embryo.
nuclear endosperm). Number of free nuclei varies greatly.
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 - In monocots & dicots, seeds differ greatly but embryogeny - Occasionally, in some seeds (black pepper, beet etc.) remnants
(early embryonic developments) is similar. of nucellus are also persistent. It is called perisperm.
- Zygote →Pro-embryo →Globular →Heart-shaped → - Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed
Mature embryo. coats. It has a small pore (micropyle) through which O2 &
water enter into the seed during germination.
- As the seed matures, it becomes dry by reducing water
content (10-15 % moisture by mass). The metabolic
activity of the embryo slows down. It may enter a state of
inactivity (dormancy). Under favourable conditions
(moisture, oxygen & suitable temperature), they germinate.

Dicotyledonous embryo
- It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons.
- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is
the epicotyl, which terminates with plumule (stem tip).
- The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons is
hypocotyl that terminates with the radicle (root tip). The
root tip is covered with a root cap.
Monocotyledonous embryo Structureofsome seeds
- They possess only one cotyledon. Advantages of seeds:
- Cotyledon of the grass family is called scutellum. • Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water,
- It is situated lateral to the embryonal axis. At its lower end, seed formation is more dependable.
the embryonal axis has the radicle and root cap enclosed in • Better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats. It
coleorrhiza (an undifferentiated sheath). helps the species to colonize in other areas.
- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of • They have food reserves. So seedlings are nourished until
scutellum is the epicotyl. It has a shoot apex and a few leaf they are capable of photosynthesis.
primordia enclosed in coleoptile (a hollow foliar structure). • The hard seed coat protects the young embryo.
• Being products of sexual reproduction, they generate new
genetic combinations and variations.
• Dehydration & dormancy helps to store seeds. It can be used
as food throughout year and to raise crop in next season.
Viability of seeds after dispersal:
- In a few species, the seeds lose viability within a few
months. Seeds of many species live for several years.
- Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. The
oldest is that of a lupine (Lupinus arcticus) excavated from
Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an
estimated record of 10,000 years of dormancy.
Seed from Ovule - 2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm(Phoenix
- Seed is the fertilized ovule formed inside fruits. It is the dactylifera) discovered during the archeological
final product of sexual reproduction. excavation at King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.
- It consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) & an embryo axis. Fruit from Ovary
- The cotyledons are simple, generally thick and swollen due - The ovary develops into a fruit. Transformation of ovules
to storage food (as in legumes). into seeds and ovary into fruit proceeds simultaneously.
- Mature seeds are 2 types: - The wall of ovary develops into pericarp (wall of fruit).
o Non-albuminous (Ex-albuminous) seeds: Have no - The fruits may be fleshy (e.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.)
residual endosperm as it is completely consumed during
or dry (e.g. groundnut, mustard etc.).
embryo development. E.g. pea, groundnut, beans.
- Fruits are 2 types:
o Albuminous seeds: Retain a part of endosperm. E.g.
o True fruits: In this, fruit develops only from the ovary.
wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut.
Other floral parts degenerate & fall off. E.g. most plants.

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 o False fruits: In this, the thalamus also contributes to
fruit formation. E.g. apple, strawberry, cashew etc.
- In some species, fruits develop without fertilisation. Such
fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits. E.g. Banana.
- Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of
growth hormones. Such fruits are seedless.

APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

- Apomixis is the production of seeds without fertilisation. contains many embryos. Occurrence of more than one
E.g. Some species of Asteraceae and grasses. embryo in a seed is called polyembryony.
- It is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual Importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry
reproduction.
- If the seeds collected fromhybrids are sown, plants in the
- In some species, diploid egg cell is formed without reduction
progeny will segregate and lose hybrid characters.
division and develops into the embryo without fertilisation.
- Production of hybrid seeds is costly. So hybrid seeds are
- In many species (e.g. many Citrus & Mango varieties)some
also expensive. If the hybrids are made into apomicts, there
nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac divide, protrude
is no segregation in the hybrid progeny. So farmers can
into the embryo sac to form embryos. Thus eachovule
keep on using hybrid seeds to raise new crop.

MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Observetherelationship ofthefirst two and fillin theblanks.
(a) Radicle :coleorrhiza Plumule :.........................
(b)m.m.c :microsporemothercell PEN :.........................
(c) 2n :zygote 3n :.........................
(d)Intine : Pectin Exine :.........................
(e) Femalegametophyte:Embryosac Malegametophyte:.........................
2. In Angiosperms, thezygoteisdiploid whiletheendospermin triploid. Discusstheeventsleadingto theformation of
diploid zygoteand triploid endosperm.
3. Emasculation and baggingaretwo important stepsin [Link] the
processesin artificialhybridization.
4. ThePetalofan [Link] and chromosomenumber ofthefollowing
structuressupposed tobeseen in theplant.
(a) Coleoptile (b)Perisperm (c)Endosperm
(d)Generativecell (e)GlobularEmbryo (f)Endosperm
5. Group thefollowingpartsinto n, 2n, 3n
Egg, synergids, PEN, pollen, embryo, nucellus, integuments, endosperm
6. Differentiate (a)Perispermand Pericarp (b)Epicotyland Hypocotyl
7. Observethediagram

(a) What isthestructureshown here?

(b) Howmany nucleiwerein itsyoungerstage?
(c) What aretheupperthreenucleitogethercalled?

8. “Peopleprefer seedlessfruitsthan seeded ones.”Nameaprocessconcerned with development ofseedlessfruits.

9. Production ofunisexualflowersin coconut preventsonly autogamy, but in papaya it preventsboth autogamy &
[Link].
10. Ibin saysthat “Apomixisisa boon to hybrid seed industry” Evaluatethisstatement and writeyouropinion.
11. Continuousself-pollination result in breeding depression in plants. List out devicesby which crosspollination is
encouraged in nature.
12. Appleiscalled a falsefruit. Givereason. Which part oftheflower formsthefruit?
13. Tender coconut hasliquid endosperminsideit. But, when matured it hassolid endosperm.
(a) Mention thefunction ofendosperm
(b) Givethefunctionaldifferencebetween liquid endospermand solid endosperm.