Module -2

Seepage Analysis & Stresses in Soils

 Seepage Analysis

• Laplace equation (no derivation)

• Assumptions and limitations
• Flow nets characteristics and applications
• Flow nets for sheet piles and below the dam section.
• Phreatic line (Casagrande’s method - with toe filter)
 Prerequisite

Permeability
• Overview of Underground Water Flow
• Permeability
• Theory
• Laboratory and Field Tests
• Empirical Correlations
• Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soil

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 Permeability
Hydrologic Cycle

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Aspects of Hydrology

• A relatively small amount of the earth's water (<1%) is

contained in the groundwater, but the effects of this
water are out of proportion to their amount.
• The permeability of soil affects the distribution of water
both between the surface and the ground mass and5
 Permeability
Definition
The property of soils:
• allows water to pass through them at some rate.
• is a product of the granular nature of the soil, although it can be affected
by other factors (such as water bonding in clays)
• Different soils have different permeabilities, understanding of which is
critical to the use of the soil as a foundation or structural element
• Soil and rock are porous materials.

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 Permeability
• Fluid flow takes place through interconnected void spaces between
particles and not through the particles themselves.

• No soil or rock material is strictly “impermeable”.

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 Permeability
The study of flow of water through porous media is necessary for-
• Estimation Seepage Loss
• Estimation Pore Water Pressures
• Evaluation Quicksand Conditions
• Dewatering System Design
• Drainage System Design

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Permeability

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Seepage
• Seepage is the slow escape of a liquid or gas through porous
material or small holes

• Seepage is one of the applications of ground water hydraulic. The

aims of studying seepage in civil engineering are:
1 To find the discharge of seepage through and beneath the structure
2 To find up lift pressure under the structure
3 To find solution for foundation and piping failures
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Introduction
• Water flows through the voids in a soil which are interconnected. This
flow may be called seepage, since the velocities are very small.

• Water flows from a higher energy to a lower energy and behaves

according to the principles of fluid mechanics.

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

1. Calculation of water discharge

2. Cut off walls and deep excavations

3. Slope stability problems

4. Weirs and Dams safety

5. Wells

6. Soil contamination

7. Rainfall and surface water infiltration

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

• Cutoff walls are walls used to support deep excavations or slopes. It

could be made of adjacent concrete piles or steel sheet piles or
diaphragm walls.
Q

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

• Concrete Dams or Weirs

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

• Earth Dams

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 Importance of Seepage Analysis
Seepage analysis is important in:

• Saturated flow and unsaturated flow.

• Steady-state and transient flow.

• Flow in aquifers and aquitards.

• Flow in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems.

• Flow in isotropic or anisotropic media.

• Flow in rocks and granular media.

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 Seepage Theories
• Hydraulic structures may
either be founded on an
impervious solid rock
foundation or on pervious
foundation.

• Whenever such a
structure is founded on
pervious foundation, it is
subjected to seepage of
water beneath the
structure, in addition to
all other forces. 17
 Seepage Theories
• The water seeping below the body of the hydraulic structure, endanger the
stability of the structure and may cause its failure, either by

1. Piping(also called undermining); or by

2. Direct uplift

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 Seepage Theories
1. Failure by Piping or undermining
• When seepage water retains sufficient residual force at the emerging
downstream end of the work, it may lift up the soil particles. This leads to
increased porosity of the soil by progressive removal of soil from beneath
the foundation. The structure may ultimately subside into the hollow so
formed, resulting in the failure of the structure.

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 Seepage Theories
2 Failure by Direct uplift.
• The water seeping below the structure, exerts an uplift pressure on the
floor of structure. If this pressure is not counterbalanced by the weight of
the concrete of masonry floor, the structure will fail by rupture of a part of
the floor.

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 Seepage Theories
Bernouli’s Equation:
Bernoulli’s equation in fluid mechanics states that, for steady flow of non-viscous
incompressible flow, the total head at a point can be expressed as the summation of
three independent components, namely, pressure head, elevation head and velocity head.
(i.e; in soil water is assumed to travel very slowly as opposed to channel flow)

Total Head = Elevation Head + Pressure Head + Velocity Head

u v2
h (m) z (m)  ( m)  ( m)
γw 2g

Note: The velocities of water flowing through the voids in a soil are very small, and
the velocity head in the previous equation may be neglected. 21
Seepage Theories

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 Seepage Theories

Darcy’s Law:
Darcy established empirically that the energy lost ∆h in water flowing through a
permeable formation is proportional to the length of the sediment column ∆L.

The constant of this proportionality is called the hydraulic conductivity (K).

VD α – ∆h, and VD α 1/∆L

The Darcy Velocity VD: VD = – K (∆h/∆L)

(–) indicates that V occurs in the direction of the decreasing head.

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 Seepage Theories
Darcy’s Law:

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 Seepage Theories

• The hydraulic conductivity of a soil (K) is a measure of the soil's ability to transmit
water when submitted to a hydraulic gradient through a porous media:
1. Gravels - 0.1 to 1 cm/sec
2. Sands - 10-2 to 10-3 cm/sec
3. Silts - 10-4 to 10-5 cm/sec
4. Clays - 10-7 to 10-9 cm/sec
K is named also coefficient of permeability.

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 Seepage Theories

Description of ground water flow is based on:

1. Darcy’s Law
2. Continuity Equation – it states that, in any steady state process, the rate at which
mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system.
A1.v1.δ1 = A2.v2.δ2
A: Cross section area.
V: velocity
δ: density (it is constant in non
compressible fluid)
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Laplace Equation of Continuity

• Is a combination of the equation of continuity and Darcy’s law.

• Used when the flow of water is in two directions.

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 Laplace Equation of Continuity
• To derive the Laplace differential equation of continuity, let us take
a single row of sheet piles that have been driven into a permeable
soil layer, as shown in the figure below.

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 Laplace Equation of Continuity
Assumptions:

• The row of sheet piles is impervious

• The steady state flow of water from the upstream to the downstream
side through the permeable layer is a two – dimensional flow.
• The water is incompressible
• No volume change occurs in the soil mass. Thus, the total rate of
inflow should be equal to the total rate of outflow

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 Laplace Equation of Continuity
• Flow in = Flow out (Continuity equation)
 v   v 
v x dydz  v z dxdy  v x  x dx  dydz   v z  z dz  dxdy
 x   z 
v x v z
 0
By simplification, we get x z
dh dh
From Darcy’s Law: v x k x v z k z
dx dz
2 h 2 h
Substitute in continuity equation: k x x 2  k z z 2 0

If soil is isotropic (i.e. kx = kz = k)

2 h 2 h
2
 2 0
x z 30
Laplace Equation of Continuity
• This equation governs the steady flow condition for a given point in
the soil mass.

• The solution of Laplace partial differential equation can be by

analytical, graphical, electrical analog or numerical methods.

• We will use Graphical solution which is known as flow net.

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Flow Nets

• Flow nets are a graphical solution method of Laplace equation for 2D flow in
a homogeneous, isotropic aquifer.

• In an isotropic medium, the continuity equation represents two orthogonal

families of curves:
1. Flow lines: the line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to the
downstream side in the permeable soil medium

2. Equipotential lines: the line along which the potential (pressure) head at all points is
equal.
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Flow Nets
• The following methods are available for the determination of flow
nets:

1. Graphical solution by sketching

2. Mathematical or analytical methods
3. Numerical analysis
4. Models
5. Analogy methods

• All the methods are based on Laplace’s continuity equation.

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Flow Nets
• Flow lines: Flow lines represent the path that a particle of water takes
as it travels through the soil mass.
• Equipotential lines: Equipotential lines are lines that pass through
points of equal head.

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Flow Nets
• Flow lines: Flow lines represent the path that a particle of water takes
as it travels through the soil mass.
• The space between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow path
• Discharge through each flow path is equal.

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Flow Nets
• Equipotential lines: Equipotential lines are lines that pass through
points of equal head.
• The space between two adjacent equipotential lines represents a drop
in head.
• The space between two adjacent equipotential lines is called an
equipotential space.

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Flow Nets
• An equipotential line means potential head at all points is equal (i.e.
total head is constant).
• Water in a piezometer (placed at different points along an
equipotential line) will rise to the same elevation.

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Flow Nets

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 Drawing Flow Nets

[Link] lines and equipotential lines are at right angles to

one another.
[Link] lines are ║ to no flow boundaries.
[Link] lines are ║ to permeable boundaries.
4. Discharge through each flow path is equal. 39
Drawing Flow Nets – Asymmetric flow

Lines ab and cefd are the boundaries of this flow channel → Flow
Lines
Line ca is the upstream equipotential boundary, where the total
head is h 40
Flow Nets

Flow net drawing are based on the following assumptions;

1. Soil is homogeneous.
2. Soil is Isotropic.
3. Soil is fully saturated.
4. No change in potential head with time.
5. Soil and water are incompressible.
6. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s Law is valid.
7. All Boundary conditions are known.
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 Flow Nets drawing rules
1. Draw 2-D scale drawing for the system showing the boundary conditions.
2. Flow lines and equipotential are always perpendicular (┴) and form curvilinear "squares".
3. Equipotential are always normal to an impermeable boundary
4. Flow lines are always parallel to an impermeable boundary.
5. Equipotential are always parallel to a constant head boundary
6. Flow lines are always normal to a constant head boundary
7. Flow lines aren't parallel to each other except in one dimensional flow.
8. Each flow channel transmit the same discharge.
9. A Flow line not to intersect with another one and the same for equipotential line.
10. Lines within the net are smooth curves.
11. Make Try and error until reaching the best drawing.
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 Flow through Flow Channel
If the ratio of the sides of the flow element are the same along the flow channel, then:
1. Rate of flow through the flow channel per unit width perpendicular to the flow
direction is the same.
∆q1 = ∆q2 = ∆q3 = ∆q

2. The potential drop is the same andHequal to:

h  h h  h h  h 
1 2 2 3 3 4
Nd

From Darcy’s
 h  h Equation,
  h  hthe  h of
 rate flow per channel is equal
 h   1 to:
q  1 2
 l1  2 3
 l2  3 4
 l3 ... 
  q k H  
 l1   l2   l3   Nd 

 Nf 
If No. of channels is Nf, the
Q k H  of flow
total rate through all channels per unit length will
N Unit: (volume) /time/length
3 43
be;  d 
Flow Nets for sheet Piles

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Flow Nets for Dam Section

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Practice Problems

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Practice Problems

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Practice Problems

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Practice Problems

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Seepage through Earthen Dam

• The flow through an earth dam differs from the other cases in that the
top flow line is not know in advance of sketching the flow net. Thus, it
is a case of unconfined flow.
• The top flow line as well as the flow net will be dependent upon the
nature of internal drainage for the earth dam.
• Typical cases are shown in Fig, the top flow line only is shown.

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Seepage through Earthen Dam

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Seepage through Earthen Dam

Assuming that the top flow line is determined, a typical flow

net for an earth dam with a rock toe, resting on an 52
Seepage through Earthen Dam

• AB is known to be an equipotential and AD a flow line.

• BC is the top flow line; at all points of this line the pressure head is
zero. Thus BC is also the ‘phreatic line’; or, on this line, the total head
is equal to the elevation head.
• Line CD is neither an equipotential nor a flow line, but the total head
equals the elevation head at all points of CD.

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Casagrande Solution

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Casagrande Solution

• Casagrande show that when is more than 30o the deviation from
Dupuit’s Assumption is more noticeable, he suggested that

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Problems

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Stresses In Soils

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 Stress Distribution in Soils

• Stress in soil due to self weight

• Stress in soil due to surface load

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 Stress due to Self Weight

• The vertical stress on element A can be determined simply from the

• If ⋎ represents the unit weight of the soil, the vertical stress is,
mass of the overlying material.

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Stress due to Self Weight

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Stress due to Self Weight

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Stress due to Self Weight

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 Stress due to Surface Load

• To analyse problems such as compressibility of soils, bearing capacity

of foundations, stability of embankments, and lateral pressure on
earth retaining structures, we need to know the nature of the
distribution of stress along a given cross-section of the soil profile.

• When a load is applied to the soil surface, it increases the vertical

stresses within the soil mass. The increased stresses are greatest
directly under the loaded area, but extend indefinitely in all directions.

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 Stress due to Surface Load

• Allowable settlement, usually set by building codes, may control the

allowable bearing capacity.
• The vertical stress increase with depth must be determined to calculate
the amount of settlement that a foundation may undergo
• Foundations and structures placed on the surface of the earth will
produce stresses in the soil. These stresses will decrease with the
distance from the load
• How these stresses decrease depends upon the nature of the soil
bearing the load.

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 Stresses due to Surface Load

Stress due to Concentrated Load

• Individual column footings or
wheel loads may be replaced by
equivalent point loads provided
that the stresses are to be
calculated at points sufficiently
far from the point of application
of the point load.

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 Stresses due to Surface Load

Stress due to Concentrated Load

Vertical stress due to a concentrated load

• Boussinesq’s Formula
• Wastergaard Formula

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 Stresses due to Surface Load

Boussinesq’s Formula for Point Load

• In 1885, Boussinesq’s developed the mathematical relationships for
determining the normal and shear stresses at any point inside a
homogenous, elastic and isotropic mediums due to a concentrated point
loads located at the surface.

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 Stresses due to Surface Load

Boussinesq’s Formula for Point Load

Assumptions:
• The soil mass is elastic, isotropic (having identical properties in all
direction throughout), homogeneous (identical elastic properties) and
semi-infinite depth.
• The soil is weightless.
• The distribution of σz in the elastic medium is apparently radially
symmetrical.
• The stress is infinite at the surface directly beneath the point load and
decreases with the square of the depth.
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 Stresses due to Surface Load

Boussinesq’s Formula for Point Load

Assumptions:
• At any given non-zero radius, r, from the point of load application, the
vertical stress is zero at the surface, increases to a maximum value at a
depth where 𝜃 = 39.25° , approximately, and then decreases with depth.

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 Stresses due to a Concentrated Load

• According to Boussinesq’s analysis, the vertical stress increase at point A

caused by a point load of magnitude P is given by

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Stresses due to a Concentrated Load

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Stresses due to a Concentrated Load

Equation shows that the vertical stress is,

• Directly proportional to the load
• Inversely proportional to the depth squared, and
• Proportional to some function of the ratio (r/z).

• It should be noted that the expression for z is independent of elastic

modulus (E) and Poisson’s ratio (μ), i.e. stress increase with depth is a
function of geometry only.

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Influence Factor

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Influence Factor

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Pressure Distribution Diagrams

Equation may be used to draw three types of pressure distribution

diagram. They are:
• The vertical stress distribution on a horizontal plane at depth of z
below the ground surface
• The vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane at a distance of r
from the load point, and
• The stress isobar.

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Distribution on a Horizontal Plane

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 Distribution on a Vertical Plane

• The vertical stress distribution on a vertical plane at a distance of r

from the load point,

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Stress Isobars

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 Stress Isobars

• An isobar is a line which connects all points of equal stress below the
ground surface. In other words, an isobar is a stress contour. We may
draw any number of isobars as shown in Fig. for any given load system.
• Each isobar represents a fraction of the load applied at the surface.
Since these isobars form closed figures and resemble the form of a bulb,
they are also termed bulb of pressure or simply the pressure bulb.
• Normally isobars are drawn for vertical, horizontal and shear stresses.
The one that is most important in the calculation of settlements of
footings is the vertical pressure isobar.

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Westergaard Formula

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Westergaard Formula

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Vertical Stress due to a uniformly loaded circular area

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Vertical Stress due to a uniformly loaded circular area

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Vertical Stress due to a uniformly loaded circular area

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Vertical Stress due to a uniformly loaded circular area

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Vertical Stress Caused by Rectangular Loaded area

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Vertical Stress Caused by Rectangular Loaded area

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Vertical Stress Caused by Rectangular Loaded area

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Vertical Stress Caused by Rectangular Loaded area

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Newmark Method

• Stresses due to foundation loads of arbitrary shape applied at the

ground surface
• Newmark’s chart provides a graphical method for calculating the
stress increase due to a uniformly loaded region, of arbitrary shape
resting on a deep homogeneous isotropic elastic region.
• The Newmark’s Influence Chart method consists of concentric circles
drawn to scale, each square contributes a fraction of the stress.
• In most charts each square contributes 1/200(or 0.005) units of stress.
(influence value, I)

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Newmark Method

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Newmark Method

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Newmark Method

• The influence chart may be used to compute the pressure on an

element of soil beneath a footing, or from pattern of footings, and for
any depth z below the footing. It is only necessary to draw the footing
pattern to a scale of z=length AB of the chart. (If z= 6m and AB =
30mm, the scale is 1/200).

• The footing plan will be placed on the influence chart with the point
for which the stress is desired at the center of the circles.

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Newmark Method

• The units (segments or partial segments) enclosed by the footing are

counted, and the increase in stress at the depth z is computed as

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Newmark Method

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Newmark Method

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Thank You

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