Module -3

Flow Through Soils and Flow Nets

 Syllabus

• Darcy’s law, assumption and validity

• Coefficient of permeability
• Field and laboratory methods to determine permeability
• Seepage velocity, capillary phenomenon
• Laplace equation - Assumptions and limitations
• Flow nets characteristics and applications
• Flow nets for sheet piles and below the dam section.
• Phreatic line (Casagrande’s method - with toe filter)
• Impact of effective stress in construction
• Quick sand phenomenon
 Introduction

Permeability

In soil mechanics and foundation, engineering, you must know how

much water is flowing through a soil in unit time. This knowledge is
required to design earth dams, determine the quantity of seepage under
hydraulic structures, and dewater before and during the construction of
foundations.

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 Permeability
Hydrologic Cycle

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 Soil Permeability
• Permeability is defined as a capacity of soil to allow water passes
through it i.e. quantity of flowing for a unit of soil surface under a
pressure of 1unit hydraulic gradient.

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 Soil Permeability
• Permeability is a product of the granular nature of the soil, although it can be
affected by other factors (such as water bonding in clays)
• Different soils have different permeabilities, understanding of which is
critical to the use of the soil as a foundation or structural element
• Soil and rock are porous materials.
• No soil or rock material is strictly “impermeable”.

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Permeability
• Water flows through the voids in a soil which are interconnected. This
flow may be called seepage, since the velocities are very small.

• Water flows from a higher energy to a lower energy and behaves

according to the principles of fluid mechanics.

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 Soil Permeability
• A soil is highly pervious when water can flow through it easily.
(Gravels)
• In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low and water
cannot easily flow through it. (Clays)
• Rocks are impermeable
• The study of the flow of water through permeable soil media is
important in soil mechanics.

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 Permeability
The study of flow of water through porous media is necessary for-
• Estimation Seepage Loss
• Estimation Pore Water Pressures
• Evaluation Quicksand Conditions
• Dewatering System Design
• Drainage System Design

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Seepage
• Seepage is the slow escape of a liquid or gas through porous
material or small holes

• Seepage is one of the applications of ground water hydraulic. The

aims of studying seepage in civil engineering are:
1 To find the discharge of seepage through and beneath the structure
2 To find up lift pressure under the structure
3 To find solution for foundation and piping failures
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Importance of Seepage Analysis

1. Calculation of water discharge

2. Cut off walls and deep excavations

3. Slope stability problems

4. Weirs and Dams safety

5. Wells

6. Soil contamination

7. Rainfall and surface water infiltration

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

• Cutoff walls are walls used to support deep excavations or slopes. It

could be made of adjacent concrete piles or steel sheet piles or
diaphragm walls.
Q

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

• Concrete Dams or Weirs

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Importance of Seepage Analysis

• Earth Dams

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Importance of Permeability

The following applications illustrate the importance of permeability in

geotechnical design:
• Permeability influences the rate of settlement of a saturated soil under
load.
• The design of earth dams is very much based upon the permeability of
the soils used.
• The stability of slopes and retaining structures can be greatly affected
by the permeability of the soils involved.
• Filters made of soils are designed based upon their permeability.

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 Seepage
• Hydraulic structures may
either be founded on an
impervious solid rock
foundation or on pervious
foundation.

• Whenever such a
structure is founded on
pervious foundation, it is
subjected to seepage of
water beneath the
structure, in addition to
all other forces. 17
 Seepage
• The water seeping below the body of the hydraulic structure, endanger the
stability of the structure and may cause its failure, either by

1. Piping(also called undermining); or by

2. Direct uplift

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 Seepage
1. Failure by Piping or undermining
• When seepage water retains sufficient residual force at the emerging
downstream end of the work, it may lift up the soil particles. This leads to
increased porosity of the soil by progressive removal of soil from beneath
the foundation. The structure may ultimately subside into the hollow so
formed, resulting in the failure of the structure.

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 Seepage
2 Failure by Direct uplift.
• The water seeping below the structure, exerts an uplift pressure on the
floor of structure. If this pressure is not counterbalanced by the weight of
the concrete of masonry floor, the structure will fail by rupture of a part of
the floor.

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 Water Flow

• The water flow is divided into two categories:

1) Laminar flow
2) Turbulent flow

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 Water Flow

Laminar flow indicates that each water particle follows a definite

path and never crosses the path of another particle.

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 Water Flow

Turbulent flow indicates a random path of irregular and twisted

movement.

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 Hydraulic Gradient

Water below a GWT surface is usually flowing under a hydraulic

gradient, defined as the slope of the free water surface in the
direction of flow.

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Hydraulic Gradient

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 Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s Law demonstrated experimentally that for laminar flow

conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of flow or the discharge per unit
time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.

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 Darcy’s Law

Discharge velocity (average velocity), is the quantity of total water

flowing in unit time, (q) through a unit gross cross-sectional area, (A) of
soil at right angles to the direction of flow.

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 Validity of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s type of flow is stable in character as long as the four basic
conditions are always satisfied:
• The steady state is laminar flow
• Hundred percent saturation
• Flow fulfilling continuity conditions
• No volume changes occur during or as a result of flow.

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 Seepage Velocity
• The discharge velocity based on the gross cross-sectional area of the soil.
• However, the actual velocity of water (that is the seepage velocity)
through the void spaces is greater than v.

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 Seepage Velocity

• A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage

velocity:
• If the quantity of water flowing through the soil in unit time is q,
then

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 Seepage Velocity

• An estimate of actual velocity, νs referred to as the seepage

velocity can be made by considering the following equation:

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 Range of Validity of Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s type of flow is stable in character as long as the four basic
conditions are always satisfied:
• The steady state is laminar flow with no changes in hydraulic gradient
• Hundred percent saturation and no air bubbles in the soil voids,
• Flow fulfilling continuity conditions.
• No volume changes occur during or as a result of flow.
• The total cross sectional area of soil mass is considered.

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 Hydraulic Conductivity

• Permeability is also known as hydraulic conductivity.

• Hydraulic conductivity, marked as K, or K- values, is one of the

principal and most important soil hydrology (hydraulic)
characteristic (parameter).
• The value of hydraulic conductivity varies widely for different
soils.
• The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and
increases rapidly with the degree of saturation.
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 Coefficient of Permeability

• The coefficient of permeability also varies with temperature,

upon which the viscosity of the water depends.
• Typical value for saturated soils are given in the following table:

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Coefficient of Permeability – Empirical Relation

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Coefficient of Permeability – Empirical Relation

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 Coefficient of Permeability

• Hydraulic Conductivity, k, is a measure of soil

permeability
• k is determined in the lab using two methods:
Constant-Head Test
Falling-Head Test
• K is usually expressed in cm/sec
• Hydraulic conductivity is also known as the coefficient of
permeability
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 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

• Constant – Head Test

• The permeability test is a measure of the rate of the flow of
water through soil.
• In this test, water is forced by a known constant pressure through
a soil specimen of known dimensions and the rate of flow is
determined. This test is used primarily to determine the
suitability of sands and gravels for drainage purposes, and is
made only on remoulded samples

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 Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Constant – Head Test

• The constant head test is used primarily for coarse-grained soils
• This test is based on the assumption of laminar flow where k is
independent of i.
• This test applies a constant head of water to each end of a soil in
a “permeameter”.

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Falling – Head Test

• Relatively for less permeable soils
• Water flows through the sample from a standpipe attached to
the top of the cylinder.
• The head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs
through the soil. At different times the head of water is
recorded.

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Falling – Head Test

• A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in
figure in the next slid.
• Water from a standpipe flows through the soil , the initial head
difference h1 at time t=0 is recorded and water is allowed to flow
through the soil specimen such that the final head difference at time t
= t2 is h2.

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

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Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Field Tests for K

• Field tests are generally more reliable than laboratory tests for
determining soil permeability, the main reason being that field tests are
performed on the undisturbed soil exactly as it occurs in situ at the test
location.

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Field Tests for K

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Field Tests for K

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Field Tests for K

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Field Tests for K

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

The following factors affect the permeability of soils

1) Particle size
2) Void ratio of soil.
3) Properties of pore fluid.
4) Shape of particles.
5) Structure of soil mass.

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

6) Degree of saturation.
7) Absorbed water.
8) Entrapped air and organic impurities in water.
9) Temperature.
10) Stratification of soil

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

1. Particle size
• The Permeability varies approximately as the square of
grain size. It depends on the effective diameter of the
grainsize (D10).
2. Void ratio
• Increase in the void ratio increases the area available
for flow hence permeability increases for critical
conditions.
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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

3. Properties of pore fluid.

• Pore fluids are fluids that occupy pore spaces in a soil or rock.
Permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of pore fluid
and inversely proportional to viscosity of pore fluid.

4. Shape of particles
• Permeability is inversely proportional to specific surface e.g. as
angular soil have more specific surface area compared to the round
soil therefore, the soil with angular particles is less permeable than
soil of rounded particles.
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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

5. Structure of soil mass

• For same void ratio the permeability is more for flocculent structure as
compared to the dispended structure

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

6. Degree of saturation
• The permeability of partially saturated soil is less than that of
fully saturated soil.

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

7. Adsorbed Water
• Adsorbed Water means a thin microscopic film of water
surrounding individual soil grains. This water is not free to
move and hence reduces the effective pore space an thus
decreases coefficient of permeability.

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

8. Entrapped air and organic impurities

• The organic impurities and entrapped air obstruct the flow
and coefficient of permeability is reduce due to their
presence.

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Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil

9. Temperature
• As the viscosity of the pore fluid decrease with the temperature ,
permeability increases with temperature, as unit weight of pore fluid
does not change much with change in temperature.
10. Stratification of soil
• Stratified soils are those soils which are formed by layer upon layer of
the earth or dust deposited on each other. If the flow is parallel to the
layers of stratification, the permeability is max. while the flow in
Perpendicular direction occur with min. permeability.

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Capillary Rise in Soil

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 Capillary Rise in Soil

• Above the water table, when the soil is

saturated, pore pressure will be negative
(less than atmospheric).

• The height above the water table to

which the soil is saturated is called the
capillary rise, and this depends on the
grain size and the size of pores. In coarse
soils, the capillary rise is very small.
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 Capillary Rise in Soil

• The continuous void spaces in soil

can behave as bundles of capillary
tubes of variable cross section.

• Because of surface tension force,

water may rise above the phreatic
surface.

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 Permeability of Stratified Soils

• In general, natural soil deposits are stratified In a stratified soil

deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given
direction changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic
conductivity can be computed to simplify calculations.

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Permeability of Stratified Soils

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Permeability of Stratified Soils

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Permeability of Stratified Soils

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Permeability of Stratified Soils

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Permeability of Stratified Soils

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Permeability of Stratified Soils

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 Seepage Theories

Description of ground water flow is based on:

1. Darcy’s Law
2. Continuity Equation – it states that, in any steady state process, the rate at which
mass enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system.
A1.v1.δ1 = A2.v2.δ2
A: Cross section area.
V: velocity
δ: density (it is constant in non
compressible fluid)
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Laplace Equation of Continuity

• Is a combination of the equation of continuity and Darcy’s law.

• Used when the flow of water is in two directions.

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 Laplace Equation of Continuity
Assumptions:

• The row of sheet piles is impervious

• The steady state flow of water from the upstream to the downstream
side through the permeable layer is a two – dimensional flow.
• The water is incompressible
• No volume change occurs in the soil mass. Thus, the total rate of
inflow should be equal to the total rate of outflow

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 Laplace Equation of Continuity
• To derive the Laplace differential equation of continuity, let us take
a single row of sheet piles that have been driven into a permeable
soil layer, as shown in the figure below.

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Sheet piles

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 Laplace Equation of Continuity
• Flow in = Flow out (Continuity equation)
 v   v 
v x dydz  v z dxdy  v x  x dx  dydz   v z  z dz  dxdy
 x   z 
v x v z
 0
By simplification, we get x z
dh dh
From Darcy’s Law: v x k x v z k z
dx dz
2 h 2 h
Substitute in continuity equation: k x x 2  k z z 2 0

If soil is isotropic (i.e. kx = kz = k)

2 h 2 h
2
 2 0
x z 76
Laplace Equation of Continuity
• This equation governs the steady flow condition for a given point in
the soil mass.

• The solution of Laplace partial differential equation can be by

analytical, graphical, electrical analog or numerical methods.

• We will use Graphical solution which is known as flow net.

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Flow Nets
• The following methods are available for the determination of flow
nets:

1. Graphical solution by sketching

2. Mathematical or analytical methods
3. Numerical analysis
4. Models
5. Analogy methods

• All the methods are based on Laplace’s continuity equation.

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Flow Nets

• Flow nets are a graphical solution method of Laplace equation for 2D flow in
a homogeneous, isotropic aquifer.

• In an isotropic medium, the continuity equation represents two orthogonal

families of curves:
1. Flow lines: the line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to the
downstream side in the permeable soil medium

2. Equipotential lines: the line along which the potential (pressure) head at all points is
equal.
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Flow Nets
• Flow lines: Flow lines represent the path that a particle of water takes
as it travels through the soil mass.
• Equipotential lines: Equipotential lines are lines that pass through
points of equal head.

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Flow Nets
• Flow lines: Flow lines represent the path that a particle of water takes
as it travels through the soil mass.
• The space between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow path
• Discharge through each flow path is equal.

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Flow Nets
• Equipotential lines: Equipotential lines are lines that pass through
points of equal head.
• The space between two adjacent equipotential lines represents a drop
in head.
• The space between two adjacent equipotential lines is called an
equipotential space.

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Flow Nets
• An equipotential line means potential head at all points is equal (i.e.
total head is constant).
• Water in a piezometer (placed at different points along an
equipotential line) will rise to the same elevation.

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Flow Nets

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 Drawing Flow Nets

[Link] lines and equipotential lines are at right angles to

one another.
[Link] lines are ║ to no flow boundaries.
[Link] lines are ║ to permeable boundaries.
4. Discharge through each flow path is equal. 85
Drawing Flow Nets – Asymmetric flow

Lines ab and cefd are the boundaries of this flow channel → Flow
Lines
Line ca is the upstream equipotential boundary, where the total
head is h 86
Flow Nets

Flow net drawing are based on the following assumptions;

1. Soil is homogeneous.
2. Soil is Isotropic.
3. Soil is fully saturated.
4. No change in potential head with time.
5. Soil and water are incompressible.
6. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s Law is valid.
7. All Boundary conditions are known.
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 Flow Nets drawing rules
1. Draw 2-D scale drawing for the system showing the boundary conditions.
2. Flow lines and equipotential are always perpendicular (┴) and form curvilinear "squares".
3. Equipotential are always normal to an impermeable boundary
4. Flow lines are always parallel to an impermeable boundary.
5. Equipotential are always parallel to a constant head boundary
6. Flow lines are always normal to a constant head boundary
7. Flow lines aren't parallel to each other except in one dimensional flow.
8. Each flow channel transmit the same discharge.
9. A Flow line not to intersect with another one and the same for equipotential line.
10. Lines within the net are smooth curves.
11. Make Try and error until reaching the best drawing.
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 Flow through Flow Channel
If the ratio of the sides of the flow element are the same along the flow channel, then:
1. Rate of flow through the flow channel per unit width perpendicular to the flow
direction is the same.
∆q1 = ∆q2 = ∆q3 = ∆q

2. The potential drop is the same andHequal to:

h  h h  h h  h 
1 2 2 3 3 4
Nd

From Darcy’s
 h  h Equation,
  h  hthe  h of
 rate flow per channel is equal
 h   1 to:
q  1 2
 l1  2 3
 l2  3 4
 l3 ... 
  q k H  
 l1   l2   l3   Nd 

 Nf 
If No. of channels is Nf, the
Q k H  of flow
total rate through all channels per unit length will
N Unit: (volume) /time/length
3 89
be;  d 
Flow Nets for sheet Piles

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Flow Nets for Dam Section

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Practice Problems

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Practice Problems

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Practice Problems

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Practice Problems

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Seepage through Earthen Dam

• The flow through an earth dam differs from the other cases in that the
top flow line is not know in advance of sketching the flow net. Thus, it
is a case of unconfined flow.
• The top flow line as well as the flow net will be dependent upon the
nature of internal drainage for the earth dam.
• Typical cases are shown in Fig, the top flow line only is shown.

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Seepage through Earthen Dam

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Seepage through Earthen Dam

Assuming that the top flow line is determined, a typical flow

net for an earth dam with a rock toe, resting on an 98
Seepage through Earthen Dam

• AB is known to be an equipotential and AD a flow line.

• BC is the top flow line; at all points of this line the pressure head is
zero. Thus BC is also the ‘phreatic line’; or, on this line, the total head
is equal to the elevation head.
• Line CD is neither an equipotential nor a flow line, but the total head
equals the elevation head at all points of CD.

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Casagrande Solution

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Casagrande Solution

• Casagrande show that when is more than 30o the deviation from
Dupuit’s Assumption is more noticeable, he suggested that

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Problems

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103
Effective Stress

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Total Stresses

• It is the stress acting at a point in a soil mass with a

horizontal top surface. The total stress is computed as the
total weight of a column of unit area above the point.

The pore or neutral stress (uw) is the stress within the water voids.
Since this stress is hydrostatic, it acts equally in all directions.
Under no flow conditions (static),

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 Quick Sand
• Quick sand condition or boiling Quick sand condition is a condition of flow,
not a type of soil, in which a vertical upward seepage flow causes floating
condition of a particle in cohesion less soil such as Sand and fine gravel.
• In such cases, cohesion less soils lose all of their shear strength and bearing
capacity and a visible agitation of soil grains is observed. This phenomenon is
known as boiling or a quick sand condition.

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 Quick Sand

When occur such condition

• When seepage flow takes place in an upward direction, the seepage pressure
also acts in the upwards direction and the effective pressure is reduced.
there is also a pressure in downward direction due to submerged weight of soil.
• If seepage pressure becomes equal to the pressure due to submerged weight of
soil, the effective pressure is reduced to zero. 107
Thank You

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