 Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement

of the surface corresponding to the volume change in

saturated cohesive soils as a result of expulsion of the
water that occupies the void spaces.

 Consolidation settlement will result, for example, if a

structure is built over a layer of saturated clay or if
the water table is lowered permanently in a stratum
overlying a clay layer
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 When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

GL

saturated clay

the water is squeezed out of the clay over a long time (due
to low permeability of the clay).

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 This leads to settlements occurring over a long time,
settlement

time

which could be several years.

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 Granular soils are freely drained, and thus the settlement is
instantaneous.
settlement

time

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 When the water in the voids starts
to flow out of the soil matrix due
to consolidation of the clay layer.
Consequently, the excess pore
water pressure (Du) will reduce,
and the void ratio (e) of the soil
matrix will reduce too.

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 Consolidation settlement occurs in cohesive soils due
to the expulsion of the water from the voids.
 Because of the soil permeability the rate of settlement
may varied from soil to another.
 Also the variation in the rate of consolidation
settlement depends on the boundary conditions.

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 SConsolidation = Sprimary + Ssecondary

Primary Consolidation: Volume change is due to

reduction in pore water pressure

Secondary Consolidation: Volume change is due to the

rearrangement of the soil particles
(No pore water pressure change, Δu = 0, occurs after the primary
consolidation)

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Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL,
the stresses and pore pressures are increased at A.

q kPa
..and, they vary
GL
 with time.
u
A
’
saturated clay

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 remains the same (=q) during consolidation.
u decreases (due to drainage) while ’ increases,
transferring the load from water to the soil.
q kPa 
u
GL
 ’
u
A
’
saturated clay q

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  Spring-cylinder model

During consolidation ,  remains the same, u

decreases (due to drainage) while ’ increases,
transferring the load from water to the soil.

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  The time dependent deformation of
saturated clayey soil can best
understood by considering a simple
model that consist of a cylinder with a
spring at its center.
 The cylinder is filled with water and has
a frictionless watertight piston and
valve.

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 If we place a load P on the piston and
keep the valve closed. The entire load
will be taken by the water in the
cylinder because water is
incompressible.
 The spring will not go through any
deformation.
 The excess hydrostatic pressure at this
time can be given as Δu = P/A and the
effective stress is equal to zero

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 Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective
stress in a clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of
an added stress

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 If the valve is opened, the water will
flow outward. This flow will be
accompanied by a reduction of the
excess hydrostatic pressure and an
increase in the compression of the
spring

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 Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective
stress in a clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of
an added stress.

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 The spring is totally compressed with final value and
the load carried by water therefore now is zero and the
entire load is carried by the solids.

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 Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective
stress in a clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of
an added stress

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 Assumptions
 Clay is saturated and homogeneous
 Soil particles and water are incompressible
 Darcy’s law applies
 Flow is 1D
 Small Strains
 Linear relationship between volume change and effective
stress

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 ~ drainage and deformations are (none
vertical laterally)
~ a simplification for solving consolidation
problems q kPa
GL

water squeezed out

reasonable
simplification if the
saturated surcharge is of
clay large lateral extent

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 H
average vertical
strain = Ho
q kPa
GL q kPa
H
GL

Ho

saturated
e= saturated
clay
eo clay
e = eo - e

Time = 0+
Time =  24
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 Consider an element where Vs = 1
initially.

eo e

Time = Time = 
0+
e
average vertical strain
= 1  eo 25
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 Equating the two expressions for
average vertical strain,

consolidati change in void

on ratio
H e
settlement 
Ho 1  eo
initial void
initial thickness
ratio
of clay layer

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 ~ denoted by mv

~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element

per unit increase in stress no
units

change in volume

original volume V
i.e.,
mv  V

kPa-1 or MPa- kPa or MPa
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 Laboratory consolidation test

The oedometer test is used

to investigate the 1-D
consolidation behavior of
fine-grained soils.

[Link] sample in ring

[Link] load
[Link] height change
[Link] for new load.
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 An undisturbed soil sample 25 mm in height and 75
mm in diameter is confined in a steel confining ring and
immersed in a water bath.

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 ~ simulation of 1-D field consolidation in lab.

GL
porous
stone
undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
Dia = 50-75 mm (oedometer)
Height = 20-30
mm

fiel lab
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 loading in
allowingincrements
full consolidation before next
increment
q1 q2
H1
H o eo eo- e1

H 1
e1  (1  eo ) e2 
Ho

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 unloadin
g

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 - from the above data

void ratio

loading
v’ increases &
e decreases
unloading
v’ decreases &
e increases
(swelling)

log v’
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 C
void ratio

r 1
Cc ~ compression
index

Cc

Cr ~ recompression 1
index(or swelling
index)
Cr
1

log v’
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 is the maximum
vertical effective
stress the soil
void ratio

element has
ever been
subjected to

preconsolidation p ’ log v’

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 original
state
virgin consolidation line
e
o
void ratio

eo, vo’

vo’ p ’ log v’

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 original
state
virgin consolidation line
e
o

void ratio

vo’
 p'
OCR 
 vo '
Field

vo’ p ’ log v’

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 VCL

~current state OCR=1

OCR=13 Normally
consolidated

void ratio
clay

OCR=2

OCR=13
Heavily
overconsolidated OCR=2
clay

Slightly
overconsolidated
clay log v’
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 Two different ways to estimate
the consolidation settlement:
q kPa
(a) using mv
settlement = mv  H
=q
H

(b) using e-log v’

eo, vo’, Cc, plot next slide
Cr, p’, mv
e
-oedometer
test settlement  H
1  eo
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 ~ computing e using e-log v’
plot
If the clay is normally
consolidated,
the entire loading path is along the
VCL.
initia
eo l

 vo ' '
e Cc log
e

 vo '
vo’ vo’+ 

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 ~ computing e using e-log v’
plot
If the clay is overconsolidated, and remains
so by the end of consolidation,
 vo ' '
e Cr log
 vo '
initia
eo l

e
note the use of Cr
VC
L
vo’ vo’+ 

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 ~ computing e using e-log v’
plot
If an overconsolidated clay becomes
normally consolidated by the end of
consolidation,
 p'  vo ' '
e Cr log  Cc log
initia
 vo '  p'
eo l

e

VC
p’ L
vo’ vo’+ 
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 Preloading at West Kowloon Expressway, Hong
Kong.
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 Piezometers measure pore pressures and
thus indicate when the consolidation is
over.

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 Cross section of PVD

Installation

Prefabricated Vertical Drains to Accelerate

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 Installation of
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PVDs