UNIT III
Microwave Amplifiers and Oscillators:
Microwave Tubes: (i) Linear Beam Tubes – Two cavity
Klystron amplifier –velocity modulation, bunching process,
output power, Reflex Klystron oscillator, power output and
efficiency, Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) – Bunching
process and amplification process (Qualitative treatment
only).
(ii) Crossed Field Tubes – Magnetron oscillator, pi-mode
operation, power output and efficiency, Hartree Condition,
Mode jumping in Magnetron, Principle of operation of
Cross Field Amplifier (CFA).
Microwave Semiconductor Devices: Gunn Oscillator –
Principle of operation, Characteristics, Two valley model,
IMPATT, TRAPATT diodes, Parametric Amplifier
In a linear beam tube, the electron beam travels in the same direction
as the magnetic field. Linear beam tubes are often called O-type
In the cross field devices the d.c. magnetic field and the d.c. electric field
are perpendicular to each other.
Power output and efficiency of Reflex Klystron
In case of 2-cavity klystron, we had seen that the maximum transfer of kinetic
energy to the cavity takes place when the electron bunch enters when the field is
–ve peak Similarly in the case of reflex Klystron, the bunch must enter cavity when
the field is +ve peak. (This is because the direction of electron bunch entering into
the cavity is 1800 opposite to that of 2-cavity Klystron) Considering the above
condition we can see from the applegate diagram that the round trip transit time of
reference electron is
Applying the same analogy of 2-cavity klystron and using the current in the
cavity can be expressed as
Applications of Reflex Klystron
The applications of a Reflex Klystron include:
Radio and RADAR receiver
A signal source in microwave generators
Frequency modulated oscillator in portable microwave links
Pump oscillator for parametric amplifiers
Local oscillator in microwave receivers
Difference Between Two Cavity Klystron and Reflex Klystron
In two-cavity klystron, the buncher cavity and catcher cavity is different.
But in reflex klystron, there is only one cavity. And this cavity works as a
buncher cavity as well as a catcher cavity.
In two-cavity klystron, the collector used to collect the electron.
Whereas in the reflex klystron, the repeller plate used in place of collector
and used to repel the electron beam.
The main purpose of Two cavity klystron is to amplify the microwave
signal. The main purpose of the reflex klystron is to oscillate the
microwave signal.
Magnetron Oscillator
Magnetron Oscillator is another type of microwave generator. In the
magnetron oscillator, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric
field and is therefore called cross-field or M-type. The magnetron was
invented by Hull in 1921 and an improved high power magnetron was
developed by Randall and Boot around in 1939. Magnetrons provide
microwave oscillations of very high peak power.
It may be noted in klystrons that the electrons carrying energy are in
contact with the RF field in the resonant cavity only for a short duration.
However, if the electrons can be made to interact with the RF field for a
long duration higher efficiency can be obtained. This has been done in
Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) and in the magnetron oscillator also the same
technique is utilized.
Types of Magnetron
There are three types of magnetrons:
•Negative Resistance type
•Cyclotron Frequency type
•Travelling Wave or Cavity type
Negative resistance magnetron makes use of negative resistance between two anode
segments but has low efficiency. It is useful only at low frequencies (<500 MHz).
Cyclotron frequency magnetron depends upon synchronism between an alternating
component of electric and periodic oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to this field.
These are useful only for frequencies greater than 100 MHz.
Cavity magnetron depends upon the interaction of electrons with a rotating electro-
magnetic field of constant angular velocity. These provide oscillations of very high peak
power and hence are very useful in radar application. This being the most useful one, this is
described in detail.
Cavity Magnetron
It is a diode usually of cylindrical configuration with a thick cylindrical cathode at the
center and a co-axial cylindrical block of copper as an anode. In the anode, the block
is cut a number of holes and slots which act as resonant anode cavities. The space
between the anode and cathode is the interaction space and one of the cavities is
connected to a coaxial line or waveguide for extracting the output. It is a cross-field
device as the electric field between anode and cathode is radial whereas the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial. The permanent magnet is
placed such that the magnetic lines are parallel to the vertical cathode and
perpendicular to the electric field between cathode and anode.
Frequency Pushing and Pulling:
The variation in the oscillating frequency of the magnetron give rise to the
term frequency pushing and pulling.
When the voltage applied at the anode of the magnetron is varied then this
causes the variation in the velocity of the electrons moving from cathode to
anode. This resultantly changes the frequency of oscillations. Therefore, we
can say when the resonant frequency of the magnetron shows variation due
to the change in the anode voltage then it is known as frequency pushing.
The change in resonant frequency is sometimes a result of the change in
the load impedance of the magnetron. The load impedance varies when the
change is purely resistive or reactive. This frequency variation is known
as frequency pulling. A steady power supply can provide a reduction in this
frequency variation.
Cylindrical Magnetron Derivation:
Le
Bo - Flux Density
a - radius of cathode cylinder
b - radius of anode cylinder
Equation of Electron Motion or Hull cut off Voltage
equation
A charged particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density B,
experiences a force that is proportional to the charge, velocity,
flux density and sine of angle between velocity and magnetic
flux. The general equation for the motion of electron in terms of
cylindrical co-ordinates is given as,
r2(dΦ/dt) = ½ωcr2 + constant ------------------ (1)
Where ωc is the cyclotron angular frequency given by
ωc = eBz/m
e – charge of electron
Bz – magnetic flux density
M – mass of electron
Let, r = a and dΦ/dt = 0
Therefore, Equation (1) becomes
½ωca2 + Constant = 0
Constant = -½ωca2 --------------------- (2)
Substitute equation (2) in (1)
r2(dΦ/dt) = ½ωcr2 - ½ωca2 = ½ωc(r2 - a2)
dΦ/dt = ωc(r2 - a2)/2r2 = ½ωc (1- (a2/ r2)) ---------------- (3)
The KE of electrons is given by,
½mv2 = eV
v2 = 2eV/m
considering r and Φ components of electron velocity, the above equation can
be represented as,
vr2 + vΦ2 = 2eV/m
(dr/dt)2 + (r dΦ/dt)2 = 2eV/m ---------------- (4)
Let
r=b
V = Vo
dr/dt = 0
Therefore the above equation (4) becomes,
(b dΦ/dt)2 = 2eVo /m -------------------- (5)
Substituting dΦ/dt from eq (3)
b2(ωc/2 (1- (a2/ r2)))2 = 2eVo /m
Substituting r = b
b2(ωc (1- (a2/ b2)))2 = 2eVo /m
b2ωc/4(1- (a2/ b2))2= 2eVo /m
b2ωc2(1- (a2/ b2))2= 8eVo /m
Substituting ωc = eBz/m
b2(eBz/m)2(1- (a2/ b2))2= 8eVo /m
b2e2/m2 (1- (a2/ b2))2 Bz2 = 8eVo /m
This magnetic field intensity is known as cut off flux density, Boc
Voc = b2e Bz2 (1 –(a/b)2)2/8m
This equation is known as ‘Hull cut-off voltage equation’
Crossed-Field Amplifier (Amplitron)