Electrical Machine

DC Generators
Introduction
 A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert
mechanical energy into electricity. When the conductor slashes magnetic flux, an
emf will be generated based on the electromagnetic induction principle of
Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a flow of current when the
conductor circuit is closed.
 A dc generator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into direct
current electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of
dynamically induced emf.
 Theoretically, a DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional
changes and vice versa is also possible. Therefore, a DC generator or a DC motor can be
broadly termed as a DC machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for
both DC Generator and DC motor. Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC
machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator’.
The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A
DC machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional
parts of a DC machine are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast
iron or steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly
but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or
welding. They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole
shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the
flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound
and placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such
a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel
disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air
flow for cooling purposes. Armature is keyed (fixed) to the shaft.
Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil that rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave
winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding
means that each armature slot will carry two different coils.
 Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made
through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc
generator, is to collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in
case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature
conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated
from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils.
Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed (or fixed)
to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
Field resistance

 In a DC generator, the field resistance refers to the electrical resistance present in the field winding
circuit of the generator.
 The field winding is an electromagnet that produces a magnetic field when current flows through it. This
magnetic field is essential for the generation of electricity in the generator. By controlling the current
flowing through the field winding, the strength of the magnetic field—and consequently, the output
voltage of the generator—can be regulated.
 Field resistance plays a crucial role in controlling the current flowing through the field winding. According
to Ohm's Law (V = IR), the current (I) flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage (V)
applied across it and inversely proportional to the resistance (R) of the circuit. Therefore, by adjusting
the resistance in the field winding circuit, the current flowing through it can be controlled.
 In a DC generator, the field resistance can be adjusted using a rheostat or variable resistor connected in
series with the field winding. By increasing or decreasing the resistance, the amount of current flowing
through the field winding—and thus the strength of the magnetic field—can be adjusted, leading to
changes in the output voltage of the generator.
 By controlling the field resistance, the voltage output of the DC generator can be regulated to meet the
requirements of various applications, ensuring stable and reliable operation.
Factors determining voltage induction
Working Principle

 According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a

conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is
moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive force) gets induced in
the conductor. The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from
the emf equation of dc generator. If the conductor is provided with a
closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path.
 In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the
armature conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature
conductors. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right
hand rule.
Types

 DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately

excited and (ii) Self-excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an
independent external DC source.
(ii) Self-excited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current
produced by the generator itself. Initial emf generation is due to residual
magnetism in field poles. The generated emf causes a part of the current
to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the field flux and thereby
increasing emf generation. Self-excited dc generators can further be
divided into three types -
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt-wound - field winding in parallel with armature winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding
Types of Generators: Generators are usually classified according to the
way in which their fields are excited. The classification of DC generator is
shown as follows:
Generators may be divided into:
Separately-excited generator:
Separately-excited generators are
those whose field magnets are
energized from an independent
external source of DC current. It is
shown diagrammatically in Fig.
26.41 ( or equivalent circuit).
Fig. 26.41. Equivalent Circuit of
separately-excited generator.

Self-excited generator: Self-excited generators are those whose field

magnets are energized by the current produced by the generators
themselves.
Due to the residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the
poles.
When the armature is rotated, some e.m.f. and hence some induced
current is produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils
thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
There are three types of self-exited generators named according to the
manner in which their field coils (or winding) are connected to the
armature.
(a) Shunt Wound Generator: The
field windings are connected across
or in parallel with the armature
conductors and have the full voltage
of the generator applied across
them. It is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 26.42.

Fig. 26.42.

(b) Series Wound Generator: In this

case, the field windings are joined in
series with the armature conductors. It
is shown diagrammatically in Fig.
26.43.

Fig. 26.43
Compound Wound Generator: It is a combination of a few series and as a few shunt
windings.
In a compound generator shunt field is stronger than the series field.
Compound wound generators are two types:

(a) Short-Shunt where shunt field and

armature are connected in parallel and
that connection is in series with the series
field.

Short-
Shunt
(b) Long-Shunt where series filed and
armature are connected in series and that
connection is in parallel with the shunt
field.
Critical Field Resistance of DC Shunt
Generator
 The critical field resistance (R ) of a DC shunt generator is defined as the
C
maximum field circuit resistance with which the shunt generator would just
excite.
 The voltage build-up in a shunt generator depends upon field circuit resistance.
If the field circuit resistance is R1, then the generator will build-up a voltage
V0 (see the E0 versus If curve). If the field circuit resistance is increased to R2,
then the generator will build-up a voltage V0 slightly less than V0. As the
resistance of the field circuit is increased, the slope of the field resistance line
also increases.
 When the field resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to magnetisation
characteristics, the generator would just excite. Now, if the field circuit
resistance is increased beyond this point (as line OD), then the generator will
fail to excite. Therefore, the field circuit resistance represented by the line OC,
which is tangent to the magnetisation curve is known as critical field resistance
(RC) of a shunt generator.
 Therefore, a shunt generator will build up voltage only if the field circuit
resistance is less than the critical field resistance.
Generator Losses
 E.M.F equation

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here,
Z = total numbers of conductor
A = number of parallel paths
Then,
Z/A = number of conductors connected in series

For one revolution of the conductor,

Let,
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and
P = number of poles in the DC generator.

therefore,
Total flux produced by all the poles = Φ X P
And,
Time taken to complete one revolution = 60/N
Where,
N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is
 Therefore

We know that induced emf in each path is same across the line
Therefore,
Induced emf of DC generator
E = emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

Induced emf of DC generator is

Simple wave wound generator

Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for wave type of winding generator is
 Simple lap-wound generator
Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in one
path
i.e. P = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for lap-wound generator is
 Field resistance line
The "field resistance line" refers to a graphical representation of the relationship between the field current (excitation
current) and the terminal voltage of a generator under different operating conditions. This line is often depicted on the
generator's characteristic curve.
The working procedures of the Field Resistance Line:
1. Field Resistance: The field resistance line is based on the concept that the field winding of a generator has
resistance. This resistance, along with the voltage drop across the field winding, affects the terminal voltage of the
generator.
2. Terminal Voltage vs. Field Current: As the excitation current (field current) of the generator changes, the magnetic
field strength produced by the field winding also changes. This, in turn, affects the generator's terminal voltage.
3. Graphical Representation: The field resistance line is typically plotted on the generator's characteristic curve, which
shows the relationship between terminal voltage, field current, and load current. On this curve, the horizontal axis
represents the field current, and the vertical axis represents the terminal voltage.
4. Slope and Intercept: The slope of the field resistance line depends on the resistance of the field winding. A steeper
slope indicates higher field resistance, while a shallower slope indicates lower field resistance. The intercept of the field
resistance line on the vertical axis represents the no-load voltage of the generator when no current is flowing through
the field winding.
5. Effect on Generator Performance: Understanding the field resistance line is crucial for analyzing the performance of
the generator under different operating conditions. Changes in field resistance can affect the generator's voltage
regulation, efficiency, and stability.
6. Adjustment and Control: In some cases, the field resistance can be adjusted to control the generator's output
voltage. This adjustment can be manual or automatic, depending on the generator's design and control system.
 Overall, the field resistance line provides valuable insights into how the generator's terminal voltage is influenced by
changes in excitation current and field resistance. It helps engineers and operators understand and control the
Voltage build process of generator
1. Residual Flux and Initial Voltage (E₀ᵣ):
1. Imagine a shunt generator where the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.
The armature voltage supplies the field current.
2. When the generator is at no-load, it is driven by a prime mover at a certain speed.
3. Due to residual flux (leftover magnetic field from previous operation), a small
voltage E₀ᵣ (typically around 1 V or 2 V) is generated.
4. This initial voltage causes a field current If to flow through the field winding.

5. The relationship between E₀ᵣ and If is given by:

[E0 = k . Φres . ω] where:

1. (k) is a constant.

2. (Φres ) is the residual magnetic flux.

3. (ω) is the angular speed of the generator.

2. Increasing Magnetic Flux:
1. The field current If strengthens the magnetic field in the generator.
2. As the magnetic flux increases, the generated voltage E₀ also increases.
3. The increased E₀ leads to an increase in the terminal voltage V.
4. With this increase in V, the field current If further rises.
5. This positive feedback loop continues, causing the magnetic flux to increase
even more.
3. Steady State Operation:
[Link] process of voltage buildup continues until the terminal
voltage reaches a steady state value.
[Link] this point, the magnetic saturation of the field pole
cores is reached.
[Link] steady state, the following equations describe the
operation:
[Link] current: (Ia = If)
[Link] voltage: (V = E₀ - Ia Ra)
[Link] the field current If is very small, the drop (Ia Ra) can
4. Magnetization Curve and Field-Resistance Line:
1. The curve plotted between E₀ and Ifis called the magnetization curve.
2. The equation for the field resistance line is:
[ V = If Rf] where:
1. (Rf) is the resistance of the field winding.

3. The point of intersection between the magnetization curve and the field-
resistance line gives the no-load terminal voltage (V0) of the self-excited
DC generator.
4. Beyond this point, further increasing the field current does not raise the
terminal voltage.
Lenz’s law

Lenz’s law states that

 The induced electromotive force with different polarities induces a

current whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux
through the loop in order to ensure that the original flux is maintained
through the loop when current flows in it.

 Named after Emil Lenz, Lenz’s law depends on the principle of

conservation of energy and Newton’s third law. It is the most convenient
method to determine the direction of the induced current. It states that
the direction of an induced current is always such as to oppose the
change in the circuit or the magnetic field that produces it.
Lenz’s Law Formula
Failure of generator to build up
1. Explain the generator principle.
Generator (Chapter 26)
2. Write down the essential parts of a practical generator.
3. Explain field resistance for a generator.
4. Explain types of generators with a neat sketch.
5. What is critical resistance?
6. What factors determine the voltage induced in a wire?
7. State Lenz’s law.
8. Define the voltage regulation of the generator.
9. Explain the voltage build-up process for the generator.
10. What are the reasons for the failure of the generator to build up? Explain it.
11. Explain briefly the losses of the D.C. generator.
12. Each pole of a compound generator is wound with 652 turns for the shunt field and 7 ½ turns for the series field. If the shunt field current is 4amp, determine the percent increase in
ampere-turns if the shunt-field current were to pass through the series field.

13. Briefly explain the power stages of a generator.

14. Deduce the EMF equation of the Generator.
15. Prove that generator efficiency is maximum when Variable loss = Constant loss.
16. Explain briefly about voltage regulation of DC generators.
17. What are the reasons for the failure of the generator to build up? Explain it.
18. Explain the degree of compounding for the compound generator.
19. A 10-kW, 230 V shunt generator delivers rated current at rated voltage. When the load is completely removed, the terminal voltage rises to 250 V. Determine the voltage regulation.
20. A Shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 V and the resistance of the shunt field and armature are 50 Ω and 0.03 Ω respectively. Calculate the generated e.m.f.
21. A 250-V, Short-Shunt compound generator is delivering 80 A. The armature, series, and shunt field resistances are 0.05 Ω, 0.03 Ω, and 100 Ω respectively. Calculate the voltage
induced allowing a brush drop of 2 volts.
22. A 220 V DC load requires 200 A. The load is located 3000 ft from the generator and is connected using a 500-MCM cable. The resistance of the cable at the operating temperature is
0.025 Ω per 1000 ft.
(i) Determine the generator terminal voltage required to obtain 220 V at the load when the current is 200 A.
(ii) Determine the generator regulation.
23. A 4-pole, 900 r.p.m d.c. machine has a terminal voltage of 220 V and an induced voltage of 240 V at rated speed. The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 Ω. Is the machine operating as a
generator or a motor? Compute the armature current and the number of armature coils if the air-gap flux/pole is 10 mWb and the armature turns per coil are 8. The armature is wave-
wound.
24. In a 120 V compound generator, the resistances of the armature, shunt, and series windings are 0.06 Ω, 25 Ω, and 0.04 Ω respectively. The load current is 100 A at 120 V. Find the
induced e.m.f. and the armature current when the machine is connected as (i)Long-shunt and as (ii) Short-shunt. How will the ampere turns of the series field be changed in (i) if a
diverter of 0.1 Ω be connected in parallel with the series winding? Neglect brush contact drop and ignore armature reaction.