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Chapter 2
Macro Mechanical Analysis of a
Lamina
Introduction : Terminologies 2
Homogeneity: A material is called homogeneous if its properties are
the same at every point or are independent of location.
If the variability from point to point on a macroscopic scale is low,
the material is referred to as quasi-homogeneous.
Heterogeneity or inhomogeneity : A material is heterogeneous or
inhomogeneous if its properties vary from point to point, or depend on
location
Introduction : Terminologies 3
Isotropy: A material is isotropic when its properties are the same in all
directions or are independent of the orientation of reference axes.
Anisotropy/Orthotopy: A material is anisotropic when its properties
at a point vary with direction or depend on the orientation of reference
axes.
Introduction :
Isotropy/Orthotropic/Anisotropic 4
Introduction : Terminologies 5
For isotropic materials, application of
normal stress causes extension in the direction
of the stress and contraction in the
perpendicular. directions, but no shearing
deformation. Also, application of shear stress
causes only shearing deformation, but no
extension or contraction in any direction.
Introduction : Terminologies 6
For isotropic materials, Only two material properties, Young's
modulus (the extensional modulus or slope of the material's stress-
strain curve) and Poisson's ratio (the negative ratio of lateral
contraction strain to axial extensional strain caused by axial
extensional stress), are needed to quantify the deformations. The shear
modulus (ratio of shear stress to shear strain at a point) could be used
as an alternative to either Young’s modulus or Poisson's ratio.
Introduction : Terminologies 7
For isotropic materials, Only two material properties, Young's
modulus (the extensional modulus or slope of the material's stress-
strain curve) and Poisson's ratio (the negative ratio of lateral
contraction strain to axial extensional strain caused by axial
extensional stress), are needed to quantify the deformations. The shear
modulus (ratio of shear stress to shear strain at a point) could be used
as an alternative to either Young’s modulus or Poisson's ratio.
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Introduction : Terminologies 8
For orthotropic materials, like isotropic
materials, application of normal stress in a
principal material direction (along one of the
intersections of three orthogonal planes of
material symmetry) results in extension in
the direction of the stress and contraction
perpendicular to the stress.
Introduction : Terminologies 9
For orthotropic materials, The magnitude of the extension in one
principal material direction under normal stress in that direction is
different from the extension in another principal material direction
under the same normal stress in that other direction. Thus, different
Young's moduli exist in the various principal material directions. In
addition, because of different properties in the two principal material
directions, the contraction can be either more or less than the
contraction of a similarly loaded isotropic material with the same elastic
modulus in the direction of the load.
Introduction : Terminologies 10
For orthotropic materials, Thus, different Poisson's ratios are
associated with different pairs of principal material directions (and with
the order of the coordinate direction numbers designating the pairs).
Application of shear stress causes shearing deformation, but the
magnitude of the shearing deformation is totally independent of the
various Young's moduli and Poisson's ratios. That is, the shear modulus
of an orthotropic material is, unlike isotropic materials, not dependent
on other material properties. Thus, at least five material properties are
necessary to describe the mechanical behavior of orthotropic materials
Introduction : Terminologies 11
For anisotropic materials, application of a normal stress
leads not only to extension in the direction of the stress
and contraction perpendicular to it, but to shearing
deformation. Conversely, application of shearing stress
causes extension and contraction in addition to the
distortion of shearing deformation.
Introduction 12
• Micromechanics is the study of composite material behavior wherein the
interaction of the constituent materials is examined on a microscopic
scale to determine their effect on the properties of the composite material
• Macromechanics is the study of composite material behavior wherein
the material is presumed homogeneous and the effects of the constituent
materials are detected only as averaged apparent macroscopic properties
of the composite material
Introduction 13
• In macromechanical analysis, where the material is treated as quasi-
homogeneous, its anisotropy can be used to advantage.
• The average material behavior can be controlled and predicted from
the properties of the constituents. However, the anisotropic analysis
is more complex and more dependent on the computational
procedures. On the other hand, the analysis for conventional
materials is much simpler due to their isotropy and homogeneity.
Hooke’s Law for Different Types of
Materials 14
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Hooke’s Law for Different Types of
Materials 22
Hooke’s Law for Different Types of
Materials 23
Hooke’s Law for Different Types of
Materials 24
Hooke’s Law for Different Types of
Materials 25
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Hooke’s Law for Different Types of
Materials 26