Chapter Two

Transformer and DC motor

 2.1. Introduction
Transformer is a static device
comprising coils coupled through a
magnetic medium connecting two
ports at different voltage level in an
electric system allowing the
interchange of electrical energy
between two ports in either direction
via the magnetic field.
…Continued
 Transformers have many applications in different areas like:
 Power system
 Control system
 Communication system
 Electronic system etc
 They can be classified by their
 Their phase
 Construction
 Voltage level
 Application
2.2. Inrush Current
What is inrush current?
• Inrush current, input surge current, or switch-on surge is the maximal
instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first
turned on.
• Alternating-current electric motors and transformers may draw several
times their normal full-load current when first energized, for a few
cycles of the input waveform
• Power converters also often have inrush currents much higher than
their steady-state currents, due to the charging current of the input
capacitance.
…Continued
Actual RMS current during
energization of a 2,000kVA
transformer from a utility
source is shown in the right
Note that the maximum inrush
is 4.55 times full load current
[FLA] at 0.1s, 2.31xFLA at
0.2s and 1.91xFLA at 0.21s for
this specific example
How it occurs in transformer?
• Suppose that a voltage of
V
is applied at the moment the transformer is first connected to the power line.
• The maximum flux height reached on the first half-cycle of the applied voltage depends
on the phase of the voltage at the time the voltage is applied.
• If the initial voltage is
V
and if the initial flux in the core is zero, the maximum flux during the first half
cycle will just equal with the maximum flux at steady state.

• This flux is just the steady state flux, so it causes no special problem.
…Continued
• But if the applied voltage happens to
be
V
The maximum flux during the first half
cycle is given by

• it is easy to see that doubling the

maximum flux in the core results in an
enormous magnetization current
…Continued
• The applied phase angle of the voltage is not normally controlled on starting, so
there can be huge inrush currents during the first several cycles after the
transformer is connected to the line
• The transformer and the power system to which it is connected must be able to
withstand these currents.
What are the effects of inrush current?
Inrush current could cause
 distorted sounds (humming or buzzing sound)
 harmonics (distortion of current or voltage waveform)
 fuse blowing
 circuit breaker tripping
If not properly managed, inrush currents could lead to failure of circuit components,
shorten the operating life of the transformer, or even cause damage.
What are the mitigation techniques?
The protection techniques used to limit the inrush current are:
 Resistor
NTC thermistor
Transformer switching relay
Pre-charge circuit
etc
2.3. Parallel Operation of Transformers
When the primary windings of two or
more transformers are connected to a
common voltage supply and their
secondary windings are connected to a
common load. Then, the transformers
are said to be connected in parallel, i.e.,
parallel operation of the transformers.
Advantages of parallel operation of
transformers
The advantages of operating
transformers in parallel include:
Maximize system efficiency
Maximize system availability
Maximize system reliability
Maximize system flexibility
Future expansion
Conditions for parallel operation of transformers
The satisfactory and successful operation of transformers connected in parallel on both
sides requires that they fulfill the following conditions:
i) The transformers must have the same polarity to avoid dead short circuit
ii) Three phase transformers must have zero relative phase displacement on secondary
sides and must be connected in a proper phase sequence
iii) The transformers must have the same voltage ratio to avoid no load circulating
current
iv) There should exist a limited disparity in the per unit impedances (on their own
bases) of the transformers
Division of load between transformers in parallel
Case I: Equal voltage ratios
 …Continued
If transformers are to divide the total load in proportion to their KVA ratings, it is
necessary that the leakage impedances be inversely proportional to their
respective kVA ratings, i.e

If , transformer 1 will be the first to reach its rated loading as the total kVA load
is raised. The maximum permissible kVA loading of the two in parallel without
overloading any one is given by
…Continued
 if , then

 Note that in either case

Case II: Unequal voltage ratios
Let and be the no load secondary emf’s of two transformers in parallel. If a load
current is drawn at voltage , two mesh voltage balance equations can be written
as

On no load ,
on short circuit, ,
On loading,
…Continued
Example: A 600kVA, single phase transformer with 0.012pu resistance and 0.06pu
reactance is connected in parallel with a 300kVA transformer with 0.14pu resistance
and 0.045pu reactance to share a load of 800kVA at 0.8pf lagging. Find how they
share the load
a) When both the secondary voltages are 440V
b) When the open circuit secondary voltages are respectively 445V and 455V.
…Continued
Solution
a) The pu impedances expressed on a common base of 600kVA are

Since , therefore transformer 2 is overloaded

The maximum kVA load the two transformers can feed in parallel
without anyone of them getting overloaded is
…Continued
b) To find the currents required, lets use the actual impedances ohmic impedances
…Continued
The corresponding kVAs are

The total output power will be

The no load circulating current will be

2.4. Special Purpose Transformers
 Special purpose transformers are designed to meet the specific needs required for
measurement, protection, control, communication etc.
 Special purpose transformers include:
i) Instrumentation transformers
a) voltage transformer
b) current transformer
ii) Audio frequency transformer
iii) Grounding transformer
iv) welding transformer
Instrumentation transformers
a) Voltage transformer
It transforms the input voltage as
accurately as possible to output voltage
both in magnitude and phase.
In order to avoid the magnitude and
phase errors caused by the impedance
VT is designed and constructed to have
low leakage reactance, low loss, and
high magnetizing reactance
It is the same as at that of an ordinary
transformer but ideally should have
…Continued
b) Current transformer
it is used for measuring large currents
and provide a stepdown current to
current measuring instruments like an
ammeter.
In power system a CT has single turn
primary which is the line itself and
the secondary is rated 1-5A
An ideal CT ratio is
 Audio-frequency transformer
It is used at the output stage of audio
frequency electronic amplifier for matching
the load to the output impedance of the
power amplifier stage
Here the load is fixed but the frequency is
variable over a band
(audio, 20 Hz to 20 kHz), the response being
the ratio
A flat frequency response over the frequency
band of interest is most desirable
 Grounding transformer
In case the neutral of the power transformer is
not available for grounding (e.g, ∆-∆
transformer is used), a special Y-∆ transformer
is employed only for neutral grounding
such a transformer is called a grounding
transformer and it is a step down transformer
The star connected primary is connected to the
system and its neutral is grounded
The secondary is delta and generally do not
supply any load but provide a closed path for
triplen harmonic current to circulate in it
Welding transformer
Is basically a step down transformer
with high reactance both in primary
and secondary
The increase in primary or secondary
current increases the reactance voltage
drop across the respective windings,
which is essential to limit the welding
current as the weld is practically a
short circuit
2.5. DC Motor Characteristics
The characteristic curves of a motor are those curves which show the relationships
between the following quantities
I. Torque versus armature current
II. Speed versus armature current
III. Speed versus torque
Shunt DC motor
i. Torque armature current
• Assuming flux to be constant, the
electrical characteristic is a straight
line through the origin
• Since a heavy starting load will need a
heavy starting current, shunt DC
motor never should never be started on
heavy load
…Continued
ii. Speed armature current
• If flux is assumed constant, then this
curve has the same characteristics like
terminal characteristics (ω τ)
• Since there is no appreciable change in
the speed of a shunt motor from no load
to full load, it may be connected to loads
which are totally and suddenly thrown
off without any fear of excessive speed
resulting
…Continued
iii. Speed torque
• the output (terminal) characteristic of
a shunt DC motor can be derived from
the induced voltage and torque
equations of the motor plus KVL

• For the speed of the motor to vary

linearly with torque, the other terms in
this expression must be constant as the
load changes
…Continued
Example: A 50hp, 250V, 1200rpm DC shunt motor with compensating windings
has an armature resistance(including the brushes, compensating windings, and
interpoles) of 0.06Ω. Its field circuit has a total resistance of 50Ω, which produces
no load speed of 1200rpm. There are 1200turns per pole on the shunt field winding.
a) Find the speed of this motor when the input current is 100A, 200A,
and 300A
b) Plot the torque-speed characteristic of this motor
…Continued
Solution
Since and are constant

At no load
Generally for shunt motors, we have

Substituting the values on the above equations

…Continued
To plot the output characteristic of the
motor, it is necessary to find the torque
corresponding to each value of speed

Substituting the values in the above

equation for torque
Series DC Motor
i. Torque armature current
Since field winding also carries the armature
current, flux is directly proportional to armature
current up to the point of magnetic saturation,
therefore torque is directly proportional with
armature current square
…Continued
ii. Speed armature current
• For small load current (and hence for
small armature current) change in
back emf() is small and it may be
neglected
• But when armature current is very
small the speed becomes dangerously
high. That is why a series DC motor
should never be started without some
mechanical load
…Continued
iii. Speed torque
To determine the terminal characteristic
of a series DC motor, analysis will be
based on the assumption of a linear
magnetization curve, and then the effects
of saturation will be considered in a
graphical analysis.
,,
Substituting and rearranging
…Continued
Exercise: A 20hp, 240V, 76A, 900rpm series motor has a field winding of 33 turns
per pole. Its armature resistance is 0.09 and its field resistance is 0.06Ω. The
magnetization curve expressed in terms of at 900rpm is given by the following
table
(V) 95 150 188 212 229 243
mmf (A turns) 500 100 1500 2000 2500 3000

Neglect armature reaction and

a) Compute the motor’s torque, speed, and output power at 33,67,100, and 133%
of full load armature current (neglect rotational losses)
b) Plot the torque speed characteristics of this machine
Compound motor
We know that the compound motors are made with a combination of shunt and
series field windings with the armature winding. Hence the characteristics of dc
compound motors will be combined characteristics of shunt and series motors. But
the characteristics depend upon how the two field windings are connected.
In a cumulative compound motor, the flux produced by the series field winding
assists the flux produced by the shunt field winding.
• In differential compound motor, the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux
( reduction in resultant flux ).
…Continued
i. Torque armature current
• If the load on the cumulative compound
motor increases the torque developed also
increases
• But the torque decreases with an increase
in load in the case of a differential
compound motor
 …Continued
ii. Speed armature current
Since resultant flux is more in
cumulative compound motor with
respect to load, the curve will be
slightly more dropping compared to
shunt motor
 …Continued
iii. Speed Torque
• When there is a sudden application of heavy
loads, the speed decreases, the cumulative
compound motors can develop large torque
similar to series motors.
• At no-load, they run at definite speed due to
shunt field flux, unlike series motor attain
dangerous speeds.
• The speed remains almost constant in
differential compound motors with increases in
load. Hence shunt motors are more preferred
compared to differential compound motors and
are rarely used.
2.6. Speed Control of DC Motor

Speed control of a DC motor is either done manually by the operator or

by means of an automatic control device.
This is different to speed regulation – where the speed is trying to be
maintained (or ‘regulated’) against the natural change in speed due to a
change in the load on the shaft.
The speed of a DC motor is given by

Hence the speed can be varied by changing:

1. the terminal voltage of the armature
2. the external resistance in armature circuit,
3. The flux per pole
Shunt DC motor
Speed control of shunt DC motor can be done using
i. Armature control method
ii. Field control methods
 armature control DC shunt motor can be done in two ways
1. Armature resistance control
2. Armature voltage control
…Continued
Armature resistance control
when supply voltage V and the
armature resistance Ra are kept
constant, then the speed is directly
proportional to armature current Ia
thus, if we add resistance in series
with the armature, Ia decreases and,
hence, the speed also decreases
…Continued
Armature voltage control
This method of speed control needs a
variable source of voltage separated from
the source supplying the field current
The basic adjustable armature voltage
control method of speed control is
accomplished by means of an adjustable
voltage generator is called Ward Leonard
System
This method involves using a motor-
generator (M-G) set
…Continued
Field control method
In this method, speed variation is
accomplished by means of a variable
resistance inserted in series with the
shunt field
An increase in controlling resistances
reduces the field current with a
reduction in flux and an increase in
speed
This method of speed control is
independent of load on the motor
Series DC motor
Speed control methods for a DC series motor can be classified as
1. Armature control methods
2. Field control methods
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:
i. Armature resistance control method
ii. Shunted armature control method
iii. Armature terminal voltage control method
2.7. DC Winding
Reading Assignment