Network Models
2.1
LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
2.2
Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.3
THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
2.4
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
2.5
Seven layers of the OSI model
2.6
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2.7
An exchange using the OSI model
2.8
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OSI model.
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
2.9
Physical layer
2.10
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Concerned About
Physical Characteristics
Bits Representation
Data Rate
Synchronization of Bits
Line Configuration
Physical Topology
Transmission Mode
2.11
PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF
INTERFACES AND MEDIUM
Defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and
the transmission medium. Also
define the type of transmission
medium.
2.12
REPERESENTATION OF BITS
The physical layer data consists of a
stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s)
with no interpretation. Bits must be
encoded into signals-electrical or
optical. Defines the type of encoding
(how 0s and 1s are changed to
signals).
2.13
OPTICAL
optical (an electromagnetic signal. It
has electric and magnetic field. That
are orthogonal to each other. The
frequency of EM wave is extremely
high. (in the order of Thz) therefore it
is more convenient to measure in
wavelength c=v גwhere c=speed of
light . v= frequency and =ג
wavelength )
2.14
DATA RATE
Transmission rate the number of bits
sent each second. Means physical
layer defines the duration of a bit.
Which is how long it lasts
2.15
SYNCHRONIZATION OF BITS
The sender and receiver not only
must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit
level. Means clocks of both
synchronized.
2.16
LINE CONFIGURATION
The physical layer is concerned with
the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point
configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration a link is
shared among several devices.
2.17
PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
Defines how devices are connected
to a topology. e.g. mesh, star, bus,
ring or hybrid
2.18
TRANSMISSION MODE
Defines the direction of transmission
between two devices. Simplex, half
duplex or full duplex.
2.19
DATA LINK LAYER
It transforms the physical layer.
A raw transmission facility
To a reliable link
Data link makes the physical layer
error-free to the upper network layer
2.20
Data link layer
2.21
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Concerned About
Framing
Physical Addressing
Flow Control
Error Control
Access Control
2.22
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
2.23
FRAMING
Divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into
manageable data units called
frames.
2.24
PHYSICAL ADDRESSING
If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network
The data link layer adds a header to
the frame to define the sender
and/or receiver of the frame.
If the frame is intended for a system
outside the senders network, the
receiver address is the address of the
device that connects to the next one.
2.25
FLOW CONTROL
If the rate at which the data are
absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced
in the sender.
The data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver,
2.26
ERROR CONTROL
Data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer
By Adding mechanism to detect and
damaged or lost frames
Also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames
Error control is normally achieved
through trailer added to the end of the
frame
2.27
ACCESS CONTROL
If two or more devices are connected
to the same link
Data link layer protocol [ High level
data link control (HDLC)] are
necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given
time.
2.28
NETWORK LAYER
Responsible for the source to
destination delivery of a packet
possible across multiple networks
(links).
Where as the data link layer oversees
the delivery of the packet between two
systems on the same network (links).
The network layer ensures that each
packet gets from its point of origin to
its final destination.
End-to-end delivery
2.29
Network layer
2.30
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Concerned About
Logical Addressing
Routing
2.31
Source-to-destination delivery
2.32
Transport layer
2.33
TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer is responsible for
the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
Process-to-process delivery of the
entire message.
A process is an application program
running on a host
2.34
TRANSPORT LAYER
Whereas the network oversees source-to
destination delivery of individual
packets. It does not recognize any
relation between those packets. Treats
each one independently. Each piece
belonged to a separate message,
whether or not it does.
While transport layer ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in
order.
2.35
TRANSPORT LAYER
FEATURES
Concerned About
Service Point Addressing
Segmentation and Reassembly
Connection Control
Flow Control
Error Control
2.36
SERVICE POINT
ADDRESSING
Computer often run multiple
programs
Network layer gets each packet to
the correct computer
while the transport layer gets the
entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
2.37
SEGMENTATION AND
REASSEMBLING
Message is divided into transmitted
segments
Each segment containing sequence
number
Sequence numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
2.38
CONNECTION CONTROL
Can be either connection less or
connection oriented
A connectionless transport layer
treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to
the transport layer at the destination
machine
2.39
CONNECTION CONTROL
A connection oriented transport layer
makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data
transferred the connection is
terminated.
2.40
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.41
Session layer
2.42
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
2.43
DIALOG CONTROL
The session layer allows two systems
to enter into a dialog.
Allows the communication between
two processes to take place in either
half-duplex or full-duplex mode.
2.44
SYNCHRONIZATION
Allows a process to add checkpoints
or synchronization points to a stream
of data.
Helpful when data crashed
2.45
Presentation layer
2.46
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Also concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems
2.47
TRANSLATION
Processes (running programs) in two
systems are usually exchanging in
the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on.
Information Must be changed to bit
streams before being transmitted.
Different computer use different
coding schemes
Responsible for inter operate ability
between these different encoding
2.48 methods.
ENCRYPTION
To carry sensitive information.
A system must be able to ensure privacy
Encryption means that the sender
transforms the original information to
another form and send the resulting
message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process
to transform the message back to its
original form.
2.49
COMPRESSION
Data compression reduces the
number of bits contained in the
information.
Particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio and video.
2.50
Application layer
2.51
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
2.52
Summary of layers
2.53
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.54
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
2.55
Application Layer Protocol
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
DNS, or the Domain Name System, translates
human readable domain names (for example,
[Link]) to machine readable IP
addresses (for example, 192.0. 2.44).
SNMP stands for Simple Network
Management Protocol.
Telnet stands for Teletype Network.
2.56
Transport Layer Protocols
SCTP stands for Stream Control
Transmission Protocol
TCP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol
UDP stands for User Datagram
Protocol
2.57
Network(Internet) Layer
Protocol
ICMP stands for Internet Control
Message Protocol
IGMP stands for Internet Group
Management Protocol
ARP stands for Address Resolution
Protocol
RARP stands for Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol
2.58
ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
2.59
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
2.60
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.61