GUIDELINES FOR VIRTUAL CLASS

• TURN OFF/MUTE YOUR AUDIO WHEN CLASS IS IN SESSION. YOU CAN ONLY
TURN IT ON WHEN AN ANSWER IS REQUIRED VERBALLY FOR AN ANSWER.

• YOU CAN TURN OFF YOUR VIDEO AS WELL TO SAVE YOUR DATA.

• USE THE HAND RAISE OPTION TO PROMPT TUTOR IF YOU NEED TO ASK A
QUESTION.

• YOU CAN USE THE THUMBS UP REACTION IF YOU UNDERSTAND WHAT IS

BEING TAUGHT.

• THE CHAT PLATFORM IS ALSO AVAILABLE TO PROMPT THE TUTOR OR ASK

QUESTIONS. KINDLY TYPE IN THERE AND YOUR QUESTION WILL BE ADDRESSED.
 WELCOME
TO THE PHYSICS VIRTUAL
WORLD
DZIDEFO AFRAM
[PHYSICS FACILITATOR]
O547691268
 CHAPTER 2:
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
 Key words:

Physical quantity, basic physical quantity, derived quantity,

scalar quantity, vector quantity, Pythagoras theorem, unit of
measurement, dimensions, errors (systematic, random and
parallel errors), measuring instruments.
Brainstorming Questions

1. What is a physical quantity?

2. How can you measure mass, length and time?

What are their units of measurement?

3. How can you classify physical quantities?

INTRODUCTION

Measurement is a process by which humans quantify their interactions with the environment.
A physical quantity is a quantity which can be measured. Mass, length, volume, temperature
and time are examples of physical quantities.
Measurement is the determination of the quantity of a body in terms of a certain chosen unit.
We have units of measurement and systems of measurement.
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a physical quantity defined and adopted by
convention and/or by law that is used as a standard of measurement of the same physical
quantity. Any other value of the physical quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of the
unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity. The metre is a unit of length
that represents a definite pre-determined length. When we say 10 metres (10 m) we actually
mean 10 times the definite pre-determined length called the metre. The definition, agreement
and practical use of units of measurement have played a crucial role in human endeavour from
early ages up to this day. Different systems of units used to be very common. Now there is the
global standard called Système International d'Unités (abbreviated SI in all languages), the
modern form of the metric system.
Some of the physical quantities have only magnitude; others have both magnitude
and direction. There are relationships between physical quantities such as density
which is a relationship between mass and volume. Specialized instruments are used
to make accurate measurements of physical quantities. There are errors associated
with the measurement of physical quantities.
At the end of the chapter, you are expected to:
1. Distinguish between basic (fundamental) and derived physical quantities and
their units.
2. Identify scalars and vectors from a list of physical quantities.
3. Outline some basic mathematical concepts required to understand physics.
4. Explain the dimensions of a physical quantity.
5. Measure with various measuring instruments.
6. Distinguish types of errors in measurement.
2.1 BASIC AND DERIVED QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS
• Physical quantities can be classified as basic (fundamental)
quantities and derived quantities.
• Basic (fundamental) quantities are the simplest physical
quantities that are independent of other quantities and from which
all other quantities are formed.
• The seven basic quantities chosen for this convenience are: Mass,
length, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity
and amount of substance.
Table 2.1 shows the basic quantities and their SI units.
 Basic Quantity Unit
Name Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd

Amount of substance mole mol

Table 2.1 – Basic quantities and their SI units

• Derived quantities are quantities formed as a result of the combination of
fundamental quantities.
• A quantity such as speed is a combination of two basic quantities of length
and time since:

• Distance is a form of length. Table 2.2 shows some derived quantities and
their SI units.
Table 2.2- Some Derived Quantities and their SI units.
Derived Quantity Unit
Name Symbol
Velocity metre per second ms−1
Acceleration metre per second squared ms−2
Density kilogram per metre cubed kgm−3
Volume cubic metre or metre cubed m3
Area metre squared m2
Momentum kilogram metre per second kgms−1
There are some special names for certain derived physical quantities because
of their complex nature. Table 2.3 shows some of such special derived
quantities and their units. Quantity Unit
Name Symbol
Electric charge coulomb C
Work, Energy joule J
Force newton N
Pressure pascal Pa
Frequency hertz HZ
Capacitance farad F
Inductance henry H
Electric resistance ohm Ω
Power watt W
Electromotive force volt V
Magnetic flux weber Wb
Magnetic flux density tesla T
Table 2.3- Special Derived Quantities and their Units
Standard Prefixes
Prefixes are decimal multiples and submultiples which are attached to units
when appropriate. Take 2.4 are some standard prefixes.
Multiple Prefix Symbol Example
103 kilo k kilogram, kg (= 103 g)
106 mega M megavolt, MV (= 106 V)
109 giga G gigavolt, GV (= 109 V)
10−2 centi c centimetre, cm (= 10−2 m)
10−3 milli m millimetre, mm (= 10−3 m)
10−6 micro micrometre, m ( = 10−6 m)
10−9 nano n nanometre, nm (= 10−9 m)
10−12 pico p picofarad, pF (= 10−12 F)
10−15 femto f femtometre, fm (= 10−15 m)
10−18 atto a attometre, am (= 10−18 m)

Table 2.4 –Standard Prefixes

2.2 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Physical quantities can also be classified as either scalar or vector

quantities.
• A scalar quantity is a quantity that has only magnitude but no
specified direction.
• Examples are mass, distance, energy, speed, density, temperature,
pressure, and work.

• A vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and specified

direction (Fig. 2.1).
• Examples are force, displacement, velocity, weight, acceleration,
momentum, moment, electric field intensity, and magnetic flux
density.
Fig. 2.1a – a vector quantity Fig. 2.1b - The N, S, E, W coordinate
Figure 2.3 below illustrates scalar and vector quantities.
Distance is the length of the space between two points.
It is a scalar quantity and depends on the path taken instead of the initial and final
positions.
Displacement is the distance moved in a specified direction.
It is a vector quantity. It is independent of the path taken but depends on the initial
and final positions.

Fig. 2.3 – scalar quantity (distance) and vector quantity (displacement)

s

Representation of vectors

•In most cases a bold letter is used to represent a vector whereas a normal letter
represents a scalar. For example, F would be used to represent a force in magnitude
and direction. When a vector quantity is written, it is often represented with an
arrow drawn over the letter ().

•NOTE: Although the vectors used in many of the given examples in this textbook
are forces, the technique can be applied to all vectors.
•Velocity is a vector and can be represented as A (or . For example,
velocity, A = 25.0 , East, 65 North.
Note that 25.0 is the magnitude and East, 65 North is the direction (Fig. 2.4) or
simply north-east.
Fig. 2.4 – representation of a vector
Activity 2.1 – Watching a video clip on scalar and vector quantities

In groups,
1. Watch video clips in scalar and vector quantities.

2. Identify some scalar and vector quantities.

3. Present your findings in class for discussion.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
 IN-TEXT EXERCISE 2.1
Answer the following questions:
1. What are basic quantities? Give three examples.

2. Explain the differences between basic and derived quantities,

providing examples of each.

3. Categorise the following quantities as basic or derived: temperature,

displacement, time, force, distance, acceleration, mass, work.
2.3 BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS

Mathematics is an essential tool in physics. In this section, some basic

mathematical concepts that will be used in some calculations in physics have been
reviewed.

1. Significant Figures (s.f) and Uncertainty in Measurement

A significant figure is any digit in a measurement that is exactly known relative
to the error in the measurement.
The place of a figure in a number is very important.
The place of a figure in a number has a different value.
The figures are read from left to right and the first value has the highest place value
if it is not zero, so it is called the first significant figure (1st s.f).
For example, 4 is the first significant figure of the number 4703.
Also, 7 is the second significant figure, and 0 is the third significant figure.
In the number 0.03608, for example, 3 is the first significant figure since 3 is the
first non – zero figure from the left.
Also, 6 is the second significant figure and the second zero from the left after the
decimal point is the third significant figure.

To correct a number to a stated significant figure we round off the last number by
adding 1 if it is 5 or more, or leave it as it is if it is less than 5.

Standard rules have been developed for writing and using significant figures, both
in measurements and values calculated from measurements.
Rule 1: In numbers that do not contain zeroes, all the digits are significant.

Examples:
5.1375 has five significant figures.

5.13 has three significant figures.

Rule 2: All zeros between significant digits (non-zero digits) are significant.

Examples:
4.053 has four significant numbers.
4053 has four significant numbers.
201 has three significant numbers.
Rule 3: Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit serve only to fix the position of decimal
point and are not significant.

Examples:
(1) 0.0056 has two significant figures.
(2) 0.00000002 has one significant figure.
(3) 0.0893 has three significant figures.

Rule 4: In a number with digits to the right of a decimal point, zeros to the right of the last
non-zero digit are significant.

Examples:
(1) 43 has two significant figures.
(2) 43.0 has three significant figures.
(3) 43.00 has four significant figures.
(4) 0.00300 has three significant figures.
(5) 0.50070 has five significant figures.
Rule 5: In a number that has no decimal point and ends in one or more zeros (such as
4500), the zeros that end the number may or may not be significant.

The number is ambiguous in terms of the significant figures. Before the number of significant
figures can be specified, further information is needed about how the number was obtained. If
it is a measured number, the zeros are not significant. If the number is a defined or counted
number, all the zeros are significant.
Confusion is avoided when numbers are expressed in scientific notation. All digits are taken
to be significant when expressed this way.

Examples:
(1) has two significant figures.
(2) has three significant figures.
(3) has four significant figures.
(4) has one significant figures.
(5) has two significant figures.
(6) has three significant figures.
Rounding Off

When measurements are combined mathematically, the result can only be as precise as
the least precise original measurement. That is, the result can only have as many
significant figures as the original measurement in the calculation with the least number
of significant figures. To ensure the correct level of precision in your calculations, you
may need to round your answers to the appropriate number of significant figures.
Never round until all calculations are complete.
• A calculator displays eight or more digits. How do you round off such a display of
digits to say two significant figures?
•To round any number, follow the following steps:
1. Determine the correct number of significant figures for the measurement.
2. Moving from left to right along the number, count digits until you reach the last
significant figure as determined in step 1.
3. Look at the number to the immediate right of that figure and apply the following
rules to govern the process of deleting unwanted (non-significant) digits from a
calculator number.
Example 1
Correct 0.08425 to 1 significant figure.
Solution
The first significant figure is 8, but the number after 8, that is 4, is less
than 5
0.08425 = 0.08 (to 1 s.f.).
Example 2
Correct 18.093 to 3 significant figures.
Solution
The third significant figure is 0, but the figure after it is more than 5 so
we add 1 to zero to give 1.
18.093 = 18.1 (3 s.f)
Example 3
Correct 376540 to
(a) 4 s.f (b) 3 s.f (c) 2 s.f (d) 1 s.f
Solution
(a) 376540 = 376500 (4 s.f)

(b) 376540 = 37700 (3 s.f)

(c) 376540 = 38000 (2 s.f)

(d) 376540 = 40000 (1 s.f)

Significant Figures and Calculated Quantities
The number of significant figures allowable in calculated results depends on the
number of significant figures in the data used to obtain the result, and on the type of
mathematical operation(s) used to obtain the results.
There are separate rules for multiplication and division, and for addition and
subtraction.

Multiplication and Division

For multiplication and division, the answer should have the number of significant
figures found in the number with the fewer significant figures.
Study the following examples assuming that the numbers being multiplied or
divided are measured numbers.
Example 4:
(Calculator answer)
The input with the fewest significant figures is 0.47, which has two significant
figures. Therefore, the calculator answer 4.01192 must be rounded off to 4.0

Example 5:
(Calculator answer)
The input with the fewest significant figures is 3840, which has three significant
figures. Therefore, the calculator answer 13.45916 must be rounded off to 13.5.

Example 6:
(Calculator answer)
Both inputs contain four significant figures. Therefore, the correct answer must
also contain four significant figures. Hence the calculator answer 12 must be
written as 12.00. In this case the calculator gave too few significant figures.
Addition and Subtraction
For addition or subtraction, the answer should not have digits beyond the last digit position
common to all the numbers being added or subtracted.
Study the following examples:

Example 7:
34.6 + 17.8 +15 67.4 (Calculator answer)
The last digit position common to all numbers is the units place (15 has no decimal place
value). Therefore, the calculator answer of 67.4 must be rounded off to the unit’s place to
become 67.

Example 8:
20.02 + 20.002 + 20.0002 60.0222 (calculator answer)
The last digit position common to all numbers is the hundredths place.

Therefore, the calculator answer of 60.0222 must be rounded off to the hundredths place,
60.02.
Example 9:
345.56 245.5 100.06 (calculator answer)
The last digit position common to both numbers in this subtraction
operation is the tenths place. Therefore, the answer should be rounded
off to 100.1.
 2. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
• Many of the quantities that scientists deal with are usually very
large or very small values. Such quantities (or numbers) are
written in scientific notation (or standard form) when it is
written in the form × 10n where 1≤ < 10 and n is an integer.
• In scientific notation, we deal with powers of the number 10.
The number of zeros corresponding to the power to which 10
is raised is called the exponent or power or index of ten.
• For large numbers, n is positive. For small numbers less than 1
(decimals), n is negative.
Recall that
100 = 1
101 = 10
102 = 10 × 10 = 100
103 = 10 ×10 ×10 = 1,000
104 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,000
105 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 100,000
• The speed of light in vacuum is 300,000,000 ms −1. In scientific notation, the
speed of light in vacuum is written as 3 × 108 ms−1.
• (The speed of light in vacuum is normally written in scientific notation to 2
significant figures as 3.0 × 108 ms−1)
For exponents less than 1, we note the following:
10−1 = = 0.1
10−2 = = 0.01
10−3 = 0.001
10−4 0.0001
10−5 = = 0.00001
Newton’s gravitational constant, G, is
0.0000000000667, which is written in scientific
notation to 3 significant figures as.
To write a number in a scientific notation, follow these steps:
1. Rewrite the number such that the decimal point is immediately to the
right of the first significant figure.
2. Count the number of decimal places you have to move or “jump” the
decimal point to do step 1. If you moved the decimal point to the
left, the number of jumps is positive. If you moved the decimal point
to the right, the number of jumps is negative.
3. Raise ten to the number of jumps you obtained in step 2.
4. This power of ten is called the order of magnitude or just
magnitude.
5. Rewrite the number from step 1, dropping any non-significant zeros.
6. This rewritten number is called the coefficient.
5. Write the coefficient and magnitude in the format:

A great advantage of scientific notation is the ease by which very large or very small
numbers can be mathematically manipulated. Use these rules for arithmetic operations in
scientific notation:

Rule 1: Add or subtract in scientific notation normally using the coefficients, but be sure
that all numbers have the same order of magnitude before you begin.

If they don’t, rewrite them so that they do. (When the math is complete, you may have to
rewrite the final answer to get back into the correct scientific notation).

Rule 2: Multiply or divide, in scientific notation, the magnitudes and the coefficients
separately.
When the math is complete, recombine the coefficients into correct scientific notation.
IN-TEXT EXERCISE 2.2

Answer the following:

1. Write 0.000001256 in scientific notation to three decimal places.

2. How many significant figures are in 7800?

 2. Indices (Powers)
The index or power of a quantity ‘’ can be expressed in several
ways when multiplied or divided. The laws of indices are as
follows:
1. . = For example, 46 × 42 = 48

2. . For example,

3. (m)n = mn. For example, (32)4 = 32 × 4 = 38

4. 4. . For example,
5. 0
=1 Any non-zero number raised to power zero is 1.

6. For example,

7. is undefined. It is impossible to divide a number by 0.

8.
 3. CONVERTING UNITS
Converting from one unit to another involves the skill of calculating, or using
mathematical operations. Normally the units are in multiples of 10.

EXAMPLE 10
Convert a length of 80 cm to metres.

SOLUTION
The conversion factor is 100 cm = 1 m
EXAMPLE 11
Convert 50 g to kilograms.
SOLUTION
The conversion factor is 1000 g = 1 kg
Thus 50 g = × 1 kg = 0.05 kg
EXAMPLE 12
Convert 1 g/cm3 to kg/m3
SOLUTION
1 g = kg =
And 1 cm = m =

Hence:
EXAMPLE 13
Convert 0.5 mm2 to m2
SOLUTION
1 mm = m = 10−3 m
1 mm2 = (10−3 m) 2 = 10−6 m2
0.5 mm2 = 0.5 × 10−6 m2
EXAMPLE 14
Convert 108 km/h to m/s
SOLUTION
1000 m = 1 km,
60 s = 1 minute, and 60 min = 1 h
1 h = 60 × 60 = 3600 s
30 m/s
 UNITS CONVERSION CHART
1. Time Conversions
2. Density Conversions
3. Volume Conversions
4. Speed Conversions
5. Length conversions
6. Mass conversions
To convert from one unit of length to the other, use the above chart
to see how many steps you moved from the unit in which the
quantity is given or recorded to the unit in which it is to be
converted.
For example,
• To convert 2 m into mm, multiply 2 by 100 10
To convert 500 mm into m, divide 500 by 10 and divided by
100
To convert 5 kg to μg, multiply 5 by 1000 by 1000 by 1000.
To convert 500 mm into m, divide 500 by 10 and divided by
100
In-Test Exercise 2.3
Answer the following:
1. Define scientific notation and give an example of a number that is
written in a scientific notation.

2. Express 900 cm in m.

3. Convert the following, leaving your answer in standard form:

(a) 20 to
(b) 72 to
4. PYTHAGORAS
THEOREM
Take a look at a right triangle ABC as
shown in fig. 2.5, with the right angle [90 o]
at C and the sides labelled a, b, and c.

where c = hypotenuse, a = opposite, (that is, directly opposite

the corner ‘A’ with angle (theta), b = adjacent.

• For any right triangle, Pythagoras theorem says that the

square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other sides.
• Thus a2 + b2 = c2. This is Pythagoras theorem.
Examples of right triangles are shown in fig. 2.6

Fig. 2.6- Right triangles satisfying Pythagoras theorem

• For example, by comparing fig. 2.5 with the first right triangle in
Fig. 2.6 of sides 3 and 4:
• If a = 4 and b = 3, then by the use of Pythagoras theorem,
42 + 32 = c2
16 + 9 = c2
25 = c2
∴ c = 5, which is the magnitude of the hypotenuse of the first
right triangle in Fig. 2.6.
 5. BASIC TRIGONOMETRY
 The sides of a given right triangle are in certain special ratios
called trigonometric (trig.) functions.
 These ratios are called sine, cosine and tangent (abbreviated sin, cos, and tan
respectively).
 Take a look at the right triangle ABC as shown in fig. 2.7 with the right angle at C,
and sides labelled a, b, and c, [where c = hypotenuse, a = opposite, (that is,
directly opposite the corner ‘A’ with angle ), b = adjacent].
 Let us consider angle (theta) and corner ‘A’ of the right triangle.

Fig. 2.7 – Right triangle

 = =
= =
= =

 The sides of a right triangle can be determined if one of the angles and one of
the sides are known.
 To remember the definitions of Sine, Cosine and Tangent, as they apply to right
angle triangles, use the mnemonic SOH-CAH-TOA.
 For example, Sin = Opposite over Hypotenuse (that is, S O H),
Cos = Adjacent over Hypotenuse (that is, C A H) and
Tan = Opposite over Adjacent (that is, T O A).
• The sin, cos, and tan of common angles are shown in Table 2.1 below

Table 2.1: Common sine, cosine, and tangent values.

0o 30o 45o 60o 90o 120o 180o

Tan 0 0.577 1.000 1.732 infinity −1.73 0
2
Cos 1 0.866 0.707 0.500 0 −0.50 −1
0
Sin 0 0.500 0.707 0.866 1 0.866 0
 NOTE 1: The square of a trig. function such as is written as
and NOT

 NOTE 2:
For example, =
= 0.25 0.75 = 1

 NOTE 3: tan θ
 EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the unknown sides “a” and “b” of the right triangle
shown in fig. 2.8.
sin 30o =

a = 5 sin 30o = 5 × 0.5 = 2.5 units

cos 30o =

b = 5 cos 30o = 5 × 0.866 = 4.33 units

Fig. 2.8-Example

• For any triangle other than right triangle, the sides can be determined
using the cosine rule
 EXAMPLE 10
Use the trig functions to find the angle θ in the right triangle shown in fig. 2.9
= = 0.6
= sin−1 (0.6) = 36.9o
Also, = = 0.8
= cos−1 (0.8) = 36.9o Fig. 2.9 -Example

Also, = = 0.75

= tan−1 (0.75) = 36.9o

Note also that: tan θ= 0.75
COSINE RULE
 Consider triangle ABC with sides a, b, and c
respectively, as shown in Fig. 2.10

 According to the cosine rule:

c2 = a2 + b2 – [Link] C
or b2 = a2 + c2 – [Link] B
Fig. 2.10- Triangle for cosine rule
or a = b + c – [Link] A.
2 2 2

Note: The cosine rule is used when two sides of a triangle and an angle
included between them are known or specified.
Example 11
Find the magnitude of the side c in the triangle shown in fig. 2.11 below.

Solution
Using the cosine rule,
c2 = 62 + 92 − 2 × 6 × 9cos 120°
= 36 + 81 − 2 × 6 × 9(−0.5)
= 117 + [2 × 6 × 9(0.5)]
= 117 + 54
= 171
c = = 13.08 units
Fig. 2.11- Example
SINE RULE
 The sine rule is used to find the angles of any triangle if one
of the angles is known.
 Consider the triangle ABC of sides labelled a, b, and c
respectively as shown in fig. 2.12.
 According to the sine rule,

Fig. 2.12 - triangle for sine rule

Note: The sine rule is used when two sides of a triangle and an opposite
side are known, or two angles and an opposite side are known.
Example 12
Find the angle at the corner B of the triangle shown in fig. 2.13
below.
Solution
Using sine rule,

=
4 = 5 sin 30

= = = 0.625 Fig. 2.13- Example

38.7
Activity 2.2 – Finding the height of a wall
Materials needed: a ladder which is 5 m long, a tape measure and a
big protractor.
1. Work in groups.
2. Without measuring directly the height of a wall not as tall as the
ladder, discuss the positioning, measurements and calculations
needed to determine the height of the wall.
3. Each group should present their report in class for discussion.
 6. COORDINATE GEOMETRY
 In Physics, the aspect of coordinate geometry where there is so much focus is the
properties of a straight line.
 The equation of a straight line is: , where and are the infinite number coordinated
pairs that fall on the line, m is the slope (or gradient) and c is the intercept on the
y- axis (fig. 2.14).

If any two points on the straight line are specified

by the coordinates A (, ) and B (, ) as in fig. 2.14,
then the slope of the straight line can be expressed
as:
Slope, m
(Where = change in y, and = change in x)

Fig. 2.14- straight line graph

• The slope, m, can be positive or negative. If m > 0, the graph, (fig. 2.15a),
has a positive slope. If m < 0, then the graph, (fig. 2.15b), has a negative
slope.

Fig 2.15a – positive slope Fig 2.15b – negative slope

Fig. 2.15 – Types of graphs with positive and negative slopes.

 7. DRAWING GRAPHS - POINTS TO NOTE
In Physics, practical assessments or experiments are carried out to
investigate the relationship between quantities.
• A graph is drawn and in most cases a straight line graph results. The
following instructions are to be observed in drawing graphs.
1. A graph should be drawn with a sharp pencil.
2. Each axis should be labelled with quantity and unit (e.g. ). The axes are
the ordinate (or vertical axis corresponding to “y” in a straight line
equation) and the abscissa (or horizontal axis corresponding to “x” in a
straight line equation)
3. The scales for the axes should allow the majority of the graph paper to be
used in directions (three quarters of the graph), and be based on sensible
ratios, example 2 cm on the graph paper representing 1, 2 or 5 units of
the variable (or 10, 20, or 50 etc., that is, multiples of 10) and not 3, 4, 7
units of the variables.
4. Each data point should be plotted to an accuracy of better
than one half of one of the smallest squares on the grid.

5. Points should be indicated by a small cross “x” or plus “+” or

a fine dot with a circle around it ʘ. Large “dots” are not allowed.

6. One should be able to take readings from the graph by extrapolation

(the process whereby the graph has to be continued (or extended) for
the intercept to be found) or by interpolation (the process of assuming
that the trend line applies between two points) as in Fig. 2.16.
Fig. 2.16 – extrapolation and interpolation
7. Where a straight line is required to be drawn through the data points, a
“line of best fit” is to be drawn by ensuring that equal numbers of
points are on either side of the line over the entire length. That is, points
should not be seen to lie all above the line at one end, and all below the
line at the other end. When the data from an experiment is plotted not
all the points plotted will lie exactly on a straight line.

8. The slope of a straight line should be taken using a triangle whose

hypotenuse extends over at least half the length of the line of best fit.
Data values should be read from the line with accuracy better than one
half of one of the smallest squares on the grid. The same accuracy
should be used in reading off an intercept. Calculations of the slope
should be to two or three significant figures.

9. One should be able to determine the intercept of the graph line.

2.4: DIMENSIONAL
ANALYSIS
• The “dimensions” of a physical quantity is the powers to which the fundamental quantities of
mass (M), length (L) and time (T) are raised
[OR it is the index of each of the fundamental quantities of mass (M), length (L) and time (T)
which expresses that quantity].
• The ‘dimensions‘ of a physical quantity is an expression of the relationship between the physical
quantity and the fundamental quantities
• The procedure of using dimensions to check for the correctness of a specific formula or to derive an
equation is termed dimensional analysis. The three basic physical quantities used in dimensional
analysis are Length, Mass, and Time.
• The dimensions for Length is written as [Length] = L. The square bracket [ ] around the length
indicates the “dimensions of Length”.
• Similarly, [Mass] = M, and [Time] = T.
• In the case of derived quantities we shall use the multiples of the dimensions of the physical
quantities. It should be noted that distance, displacement, depth, height, breadth, and width are all
forms of length.
• Also note that numbers or constants in Physics equations without units are dimensionless.
Example 13
Find the dimensions of the following quantities:
i. Area
ii. Volume
iii. Density
iv. Speed
v. Velocity
vi. Acceleration
vii. Force
 SOLUTION
i. Area = length × breadth, or, length × length (since breadth is a form of
length)
[Area] = L L = L2
That is, dimensions of Area, [Area] = L2

ii. Volume = length × breadth × height, or, (length × length × length)

[Volume] = L × L × L = L3

iii.
iv. Speed =

v. Velocity

vi. Acceleration

vii. Force
= MLT−2
 USES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis has three applications.
These are as follows:
1. It can be used to check the unit of a physical quantity
(or used to obtain derived units).
Example 14
A quantity has dimensions LT−2. Determine its unit.

Solution
Let be the physical quantity.
Then
The unit of
Example 15
The period, Tp, of revolution of a satellite orbiting a planet of mass, Mp, is
related to the radius, R, of the orbit by the equation.
=
Using dimensional analysis, deduce the base units of .
Solution
=
=
(Note that is dimensionless).
= OR =
Hence the base unit of G is
Example 16 Dimensionally, [l] = L, [] = LT−2
Determine the unit of a quantity “y” K is dimensionless constant.
given by the expression

=K
Where K = constant, =K
l = length
The dimensions T has unit second, s.
= acceleration due to gravity
K is dimensionless.

Solution Hence the unit of y is the second, s.

IN-TEXT EXERCISE 2.4
Use dimensions to determine the fundamental units of the following
quantities:
(a). Momentum
(b). Force
(c). Work
(d). Energy
(e). Power
2. Dimensional analysis can be used to check for the dimensional
correctness of a given equation or a formula.
• If an equation is correct each term in it must have the same dimensions as
every other. That is, the dimensions on the Left Hand Side (LHS) of the
equation must be equal to the dimensions on the Right Hand Side (RHS).
• When LHS dimensions = RHS dimensions, then the equation is said to be
dimensionally homogeneous.
• You should bear in mind that a number or constant has no dimensions. It
should also be noted that:
1. The method does not tell where the equation is wrong.
2. If the equation is dimensionally homogeneous, we would know only that it
might be correct, since the method does not provide a check for any
numerical factor.
Example 17
The final velocity “” of an object moving with acceleration
“” and a displacement “” and of initial velocity “” is given
by the expression .
Determine whether the equation is dimensionally
homogeneous.
Solution

For the Left Hand Side (LHS), dimensionally,

For the Right Hand Side (RHS)

The number 3 is dimensionless constant. Hence that is,

dimensions on LHS = dimensions on RHS. Hence the equation is
dimensionally homogeneous and the equation might be correct.
Example 18
The displacement “s” of an object which moves with an initial
velocity “u” and undergoes acceleration “” for time “t” is
given by the expression:

Determine whether the equation is dimensionally

homogeneous.
Solution

For the LHS, dimensionally, [s] = L

For the RHS,

(Since T0 = 1)
Thus, , that is, the dimensions on the Left Hand Side is not equal to the
dimensions on the Right Hand Side so the equation is not dimensionally
homogeneous, and it is a wrong equation.
3. Dimensional analysis is used to establish a relationship
between quantities.

Example 19
The period of oscillation, Tp of a simple pendulum depends
on the length “” of the simple pendulum and the acceleration
due to gravity “”.
Use the method of dimensional analysis to establish a
relationship between them.
Solution
Given that = period
= acceleration due to gravity
= length

Then, according to the statement

................................................... (1)
K is dimensionless constant, and x and y are determinable indices.

Dimensionally, [
(The subscript p is to differentiate the dimensions for Time and the Period).

And [] = L and [

Introduce the dimensions for length, L, on the Left Hand Side as L0 so that we have both L and T on both
sides of the equation.
Thus Substitute
Note that
Comparing the indices on both sides; , or
For L,
For T, This is the relationship between

From (3),
Substitute in (2)
Activity 2.2 - Group discussion

1. Work in groups.
2. Discuss about the uses of dimensional analysis in Physics
EXERCISE ON DIMENSIONS

1. Write down the dimensions of the following quantities:

i. Pressure
ii. Momentum
iii. Work

2. The density “” of a substance depends on its mass “” and

volume “”. Derive a relationship between these quantities using
the method of dimensions.

3. The speed of a transverse wave in a stretched string depends on the

tension, and the mass per unit length or linear density, . Deduce the
formula for in terms of and in using dimensional analysis.
(NOTE: Tension is a force)
4. (a). State three fundamental units of measurement
(b). What is a derived quantity?
(c). Write down the dimensions of the following physical
quantities:
(i) acceleration
(ii) pressure
(iii) density
5. The displacement “s” of an object is given by the expression:
,

Determine whether the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

6. For a uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line, v2 = u2 + 2as,

where v is the final velocity, u is the initial velocity, a is the
acceleration and s is the distance covered. Show that u2 and 2as are
dimensionally equivalent.
ANSWERS TO EXERCISE ON DIMENSIONS
1(i) Pressure

ii. Momentum

MLT−1

iii. Work
] MLT−2
ML2T−2
2. Given that density =
= mass
= volume
Then, according to the statement
................................................... (1)
K is dimensionless constant, and x and y are determinable indices.
Dimensionally,
[
And [] L3
Comparing the indices on both sides;
For M,
For L,

From (2),
From (3),
Substitute

Or =
3. Given that = speed
= Tension (which is a force)
= mass over unit length
Then, according to the statement
................................................... (1)
K is dimensionless constant, and x and y are determinable indices.
Dimensionally, [
[ MLT−2
and [

(
 Introduce the dimensions for length, M, on the Left Hand Side as M0
so that we have both L and T on both sides of the equation.
Thus
(
Note that
Comparing the indices on both sides;
For M,
For L,
For T, ………………………………..(4)
From (4),
Substitute in (2)
Substitute

Or

This is the relationship between

(b). Derived quantities are quantities formed as a result of the
combination of fundamental quantities.

(c). Dimensions of the following physical quantities:

(i) Acceleration
(ii) Pressure

(iii)
5. ,
For the Left Hand Side (LHS), dimensionally, [s] = L
For the Right Hand Side (RHS),

(Since T0 = 1)
or

The number is dimensionless constant. Thus, ; that is,

dimensions on LHS is equal to the dimensions on RHS. Hence the equation is
dimensionally homogeneous and the equation might be correct.
6.
For the Left Hand Side (LHS), dimensionally,

For the Right Hand Side (RHS)

The number 3 is dimensionless constant. Hence

that is, dimensions on LHS = dimensions on RHS. Hence the
equation
is dimensionally homogeneous and the equation might be correct.
 2.5 - MEASUREMENTS OF
SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physics involves a lot of experimental measurements. In this section we

shall discuss the measurement of length, volume, mass, weight and
time.
ACTIVITY 2.3 – Measuring physical quantities
1. What is your mass in kilogram?

2. In groups, observe measurement activities in your community for two

days and prepare a report on the what, where, and how of the
measurements observed.
3. Based on your observations, discuss the traditional and commonly used
scales, instruments and units for length, mass, time, volume and
temperature.
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

The length of an object represents its extent in space. The SI unit for
length is the metre. Subunits are millimetre and centimetre.
Three instruments used for measuring lengths in the laboratory are:
1. Metre rule.
2. Vernier callipers.
3. Micrometer screw gauge.
1. THE METRE RULE
The metre rule (fig. 2.17) is the standard instrument for
measuring length. It can be used to measure accurately to 1.0
mm or 0.1 cm. The smallest graduation on the metre rule or the
least count is 0.1 cm or 1mm.

Fig. 2.17- the metre rule

Activity 2.4 - Using a metre rule to measure lengths
In this activity, you will explore the use of a metre rule in measuring lengths of
objects.
Materials: A metre rule
Procedure
1. Using a metre rule, find the lengths of the following:
i) The black board or white board.
ii) The length of the classroom.
iii) The length of your physics textbook.

2. What are the possible errors in the use of a metre rule to measure length?
3. Using the figure below read off the values indicated on the metre
rule for the indicated lengths.

(i) AB = (ii) AC = (iii) DE =

(iv) BD = (v) AE = (vi) BE =
Activity 2. 5 – Measuring length

A farmer wants to know the length of his plot of land in metre but he
has only a long rope, a 50 cm ruler and a 6 m long stick.
How can he easily measure the length of his plot?

Discuss in groups.
2. THE VERNIER CALLIPER
• The vernier calliper is used to measure short straight-line distances between two
points to a precision of 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
• The vernier calliper is used to measure small lengths such as the internal and
external diameters of test tubes, the thickness of a meter rule, the thickness of a
book, and the depth of a hole.
• For the internal diameter of tubes, we use the upper jaws to grip the inner part of
the tube. For external diameter and other lengths use the lower jaws to grip the
object. The vernier callipers (fig. 2.18) has two scales: the main scale, M, and the
vernier scale, V.
• The main scale consists of a straight metal or plastic scale M graduated in
millimetres or centimetres with a movable vernier scale V engraved on a metal or
plastic B. (Note that the vernier scale can be a circular scale on some instruments).
Parts of Vernier Calliper and Their Functions

Fig. 2.18 − Structure of a Vernier calliper

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object.

2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object.

3. Stem /depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole.

4. Main scale: scale marked in mm or cm.

5. Vernier scale: gives interpolated measurements to mm or better.

The vernier calliper consists of a main scale engraved on a fixed ruler and
an auxiliary. Please note that the vernier scale is engraved on a movable
jaw. The movable auxiliary scale is free to slide along the length of the
fixed ruler.
How to read a length with vernier callipers
The following procedure is to be followed when reading a
measurement taken with the vernier calliper:
1. Read the main scale reading before the zero mark of the vernier
scale.
2. Look for the mark of the vernier scale that coincides with a main
scale reading and multiply it by 0.01 cm. For example, if the 6 th
mark coincides with the main scale reading then the vernier scale
reading is 6 × 0.01 = 0.06 cm.
3. Add the two readings for the total reading.
Illustration 1
The diagram in fig. 2.19 helps in reading at a glance a length measured with a
vernier calliper after the jaws have gripped an object whose length is required.

Fig. 2.19 – Reading at a glance a length measured with Vernier calliper

Illustration 2
The diagram in fig. 2.20 is the magnified portion of the window section of the
vernier calliper which includes the main scale reading and the vernier scale
reading after the jaws have gripped an object whose length is required.

Fig. 2.20- Vernier calliper reading

• Main scale reading (before the zero mark on the
vernier scale) = 6.20 cm
• Vernier mark coinciding with main scale reading = 3 rd
mark.
• Vernier scale reading = 3 × 0.01 cm = 0.03 cm
• Total reading =
• Note: For very accurate reading, the mean of four
vernier callipers readings at various sections of the
object is required.
Example 20

Determine the vernier calliper reading in fig. 2.21 below.

Fig. 2.21 – vernier calliper reading

Solution

Main scale reading = 4.80 cm

Vernier scale reading = 0.06 cm (that is, 6 th mark coinciding × 0.01)
Total reading =
Measurements with vernier calliper
To make an outside measurement, the jaws are closed snugly around the
outside of an object as in Figure 2 X(a). For an inside measurement, the smaller
jaws are placed inside the object to be measured as in Figure 2 X(b). For a
depth measurement, the depth gauge is inserted into the opening to be
measured, as in Fig. 2 X(c).

Figure 2 X - Measurements with Vernier Callipers

Tips for using vernier callipers
1. Check that the instrument is held perpendicular (that is, at
90o) to the surface of the part being measured.
2. When measuring the diameter of a round piece, check that
the full diameter is measured.
3. On rounds, take three readings at approximately 90o to
each other; on flat surfaces take three readings at different
points. Then average the readings.
Activity 2.4 - Measuring lengths with vernier callipers
In this activity, you will explore the use of vernier callipers in measuring lengths
of objects.
Materials: Vernier callipers, metre rule, calorimeter, beaker.
Procedure
Use the vernier callipers to measure the following:
i. The thickness, (t) of the metre rule.
ii. The width (w) of the metre rule.
iii. The external diameter (D) of the calorimeter.
iv. The internal diameter (d) of the calorimeter.
v. The depth (h) of the calorimeter.
vi. The diameter (dB) of a pendulum bob.
td
dhw
D///cm
/cm
cm
/cm
cm
B

Measurement/ Reading

1st main scale

Vernier scale
Total
2nd main scale
Vernier scale
Total
3rd main scale
Vernier scale
Total
Average Reading
3. THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
The micrometer screw gauge is a device for measuring very small
lengths such as the thickness of a wire, the diameter of a pendulum
bob, and the thickness of a metre rule to an accuracy of 0.01 mm of
0.001 cm.

Structure of a micrometer screw gauge

The vital features of the instrument are shown below in fig. 2.22.
Fig. 2.22 - Structure of micrometer screw gauge
• It has a screwed spindle which is fitted with a graduated thimble.
• The screw has a pitch of 0.5 mm implying that one complete revolution of the thimble makes
the spindle move through 0.5 mm.
• The spring ratchet (fine adjustment) prevents the user from exerting undue pressure (Note that
exerting undue pressure introduces error into the instrument and hence the measurements).
• The sleeve carries a scale in half millimetres representing one complete revolution of the screw.
Fractions of a revolution can be obtained on the thimble which has a scale of either 50 or 100
equal division corresponding to screw travel of either one-fiftieth (half an mm) or one hundredth
(an mm) respectively (that is, 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm in each case as the least count).
• A gauge graduated in centimetres can be used to read to 3 decimal places.
• The first two readings are from the sleeve and the third from the thimble. The millimetre
graduation allows for two decimal places.
• Whatever is read on the thimble must be multiplied by 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm depending on the
scale being used, and added to the sleeve readings to obtain the final measurement.
How to Use a Micrometer Properly
The instrument has a sleeve or main scale S and a circular Thimble scale T. Scale S is a
metric scale and scale T consists of 50 (or 100) equal divisions. To take measurements with
the micrometer:
1. Unscrew the instrument and place the object to be measured between the anvil and
spindle.
2. Turn the thimble until the object is gripped gently between the anvil and spindle.
3. Do not force the turning of the thimble, since this may damage the very delicate threads
on the spindle that are located inside the spindle.
4. Turn the ratchet knob until a "click" sound is heard. This is to prevent exerting too much
pressure on the object being measured.
5. Turn the ratchet for three more clicks after the object is secured. Lock the gauge by
flipping the thumb switch.
6. Take the reading. There is a scale measured in millimetres to the left of the revolving
thimble. That will be your first reading (main scale reading). The thimble itself measures
the hundredths of a millimetre (Thimble scale) and is lined up with the main scale.
Reading = (Reading of sleeve or main scale) + (Reading of thimble scale).
Steps in Reading a Micrometer Screw Gauge
Step 1: Find the whole number of mm in the measurement (sleeve
or main scale reading) by counting the number of mm graduations on
the sleeve to the left of the thimble.
Step 2: Find the decimal part of the measurement (Thimble scale
reading) by reading the graduation on the thimble that is most nearly
in line with the centre-line on the sleeve. Then multiply this reading
by 0.01. If the thimble is at, or immediately to the right of, the half-
mm graduation, then add 0.50 mm to the reading on the thimble.
Step 3: Add the numbers found in Step 1 and Step 2.
Illustration 1
The diagram in fig. 2.23 is the magnified portion of a gap in a section of the
micrometer screw gauge being measured. The diagram includes the sleeve
scale reading and the thimble scale.

Fig. 2.23 – Micrometer screw gauge reading

Example 21: Read the measurement shown on the metric
micrometer in the figure below:
Example 22: Read the measurement shown on the metric
micrometer in the figure below:
Example 23: Read the measurement shown on the metric
micrometer in the figure below:
Activity 2.5- Measuring lengths with a micrometer screw gauge
In this activity, you will explore the use of micrometer screw gauge in
measuring lengths of objects.
Materials: A micrometer screw gauge, metre rule, a piece of constantan or
nichrome or copper wire, a pendulum bob or ball bearing.
Procedure
1. Use the micrometer screw gauge to measure the following:
(i) The thickness, (t) of the metre rule.
(ii) The thickness (tp) of a piece of paper.
(iii) The diameter (d) of a piece of wire.
(iv) The diameter (D) of a pendulum bob or ball bearing.
(v) Tabulate your results as follows:
Measurement/ Reading
1st Sleeve scale
Thimble scale
Total
2nd Sleeve scale
Thimble scale
Total
3rd Sleeve scale
Thimble scale
Total
Average Reading
MEASURING TIME
Time is that which helps us to distinguish events concerning what was before
and after the event.
The SI unit for time is the second.
The digital or analogue stopwatch or clock (fig. 2.24) is used to measure time
in the laboratory, normally to an accuracy of 0.1 s.

Digital stopwatch Analogue stopwatch

Fig. 2.24 –stopwatches
Most of the timings involve oscillating objects. One
complete oscillation is a full to-and-fro motion. Suppose a
pendulum bob oscillates between points A and B about a
fixed position O [fig. 2.25].

One complete oscillation is a

to-and-fro motion from:
or
or

Fig. 2.25- oscillating pendulum bob

• If “” oscillations are made in time “t” seconds, then;
period T = ..................... (2)
• The time for one complete oscillation is called the period (T).
• The number of oscillations made in one second is called the frequency, f.
• If f oscillations are made in one second, then the period, T, is given by
the expression: T = ……. ……. (1)
• This is the relation between period and frequency.
• For example, if the time for 20 oscillations of a simple pendulum is 40 s,
then:
• Period, T = = 2.0 s
Activity 2.6 - Measuring time
In this activity, you will explore the use of a stop watch in measuring time taken by a
pendulum bob to make oscillations.
Materials: A stop watch, pendulum bob, thread, metre rule, retort stand.
Procedure
1. Set up a simple pendulum by passing the string through a split cork with a bob at the free
end of the string as in fig. 2.26.

Fig. 2.26 – simple pendulum set-up

2. Measure a length l =100 cm of the pendulum with a metre
rule from the centre of the bob to the point of suspension.
3. Displace the bob through a small angle and release it.
4. Record the time t for 20 oscillations of the bob.
5. Repeat the timing and record your answer. Compare the two
readings.
6. Find the time for 20 oscillations for different lengths
l = 90 cm, 80 cm, 70 cm, 60 cm and 50 cm of the pendulum.
7. Determine the period T of oscillations for each length of the
string.
8. Tabulate your results as follows:

Length l/cm Time for 20 oscillations Period T2/s2

t1/s t2/s mean time t/s T/s
MEASUREMENT OF MASS
• Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. The SI unit is the
kilogram.
• The instrument for measuring mass is the balance. Several
types of balances are chemical balance, electronic balance, lever
balance, top pan balance, and beam balance. Some of these are
shown in fig. 2.28.
 Lever balance

Fig. 2.28– balances

Activity 2.7 – Measuring mass
In this activity, you will explore the use of different types of
balances to measure the mass of objects.

Materials: Electronic balance, lever balance, tripod balance,

beam balance, empty beaker, water, slotted masses, 100 g and
200 g marked A and B respectively, a piece of stone.
Procedure
1. Use the different types of balances in the laboratory to take the
following measurements.
i. Mass of an empty beaker.
ii. Mass of the beaker half filled with water. What then is the
mass of water in the beaker?
2. Mass of a piece of metal labelled A.
3. Mass of a piece of metal labelled B.
4. Mass of your calculator.
5. Compare the accuracies of the various types of the balances used.
Weight

The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it. Weight is different

from mass. The weight of a body, expressed in newton (N), is
measured by hanging it on a spring balance or force meter

[fig. 2.28]. The weight of an object is expressed mathematically as:

.
Fig. 2.28 - spring balance (force meter)
Activity 2.7B – Measuring weights
In this activity, you will explore the use of a force meter to determine the
weights of objects.
Materials: Force meter, slotted masses, 1 kg and 2 kg marked A and B
respectively, a piece of stone.
Procedure
1. Suspend the force meter by means of a retort stand.
2. Hang the load by means of a thread on the hook at the free end of the force
meter.
3. Record the reading on the scale attached to the force meter when it is
steady.
4. Repeat for the load B and the stone.
Differences between Mass and Weight
The following are the differences between mass and weight:

Mass Weight
1. It is the quantity of It is the force of gravity on
matter in an object an object
2. The S.I unit is the
The S.I unit is the newton
kilogram
3. It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME OF LIQUIDS
• In the laboratory, various sizes of graduated cylinders are used to
measure the volume of a liquid.
• The measuring cylinder and burette are instruments used for
desired volumes of liquids.
• The measuring flask and the pipette are used for fixed pre-
determined volumes.
• The instruments for measuring the volume of liquids are shown in
Fig. 2.29.
Fig. 2.29 – instruments for measuring volume of liquids
Correct Position of the Eye
When measuring volumes, it is
important to ensure that the
graduated cylinder is set up in a
vertical position and that the eye
is at the same level as the
meniscus (or curved surface) of
the liquid as shown in fig. 2.34.
Fig. 2.34 – reading the volume of a liquid
• A solid immersed in a fluid displaces a volume of liquid which is
equal to the volume of the solid.
• To find the volume of a piece of solid which sinks in water, a
measuring cylinder is first filled with water to a volume V1 as
indicated by the measuring cylinder (fig. 2.30).
• A string is tied to the solid and lowered gently into the water
contained in the measuring cylinder. The new volume V2 is noted.
The solid displaces its own volume, V, which is given by the
expression V = V2 − V1.
• Thus in fig. 2.17, the volume V of the solid is given by
3
Fig 2.30 – finding the volume of a solid using a measuring cylinder
• The eureka can and a measuring cylinder can also be used to
find the volume of a solid.
• This is illustrated in fig. 2.31. The eureka can is first filled with
water and allowed to settle until no water flows out of the spout.
• The solid is tied to a string and lowered gently into the eureka
can until it is fully submerged.
• The displaced water is collected into a measuring cylinder.
• The volume of water measured is equal to the volume of the
solid.
Fig. 2.31 - finding volume of a solid using eureka can and measuring cylinder
Activity 2.7C – Measuring the volume of solids
In this activity, you will explore the use of measuring cylinder
to measure the volume of objects.

Materials: Measuring cylinder, displacement can, a beaker of

water, a thread, a piece of stone or metal the size of
a tennis ball.
Procedure
1. Pour some water to about a quarter full of the measuring cylinder.
2. Read and record the initial volume of the water in the cylinder.
3. Tie the thread to the stone or metal.
4. Lower the thread gently into the measuring cylinder until the stone or metal
touches the base of the measuring cylinder (as in Fig. 2.30).
5. Read and record the final volume of the water in the measuring cylinder.
6. Calculate the volume of the water displaced by the solid. What does this
represent?
7. Fill the displacement can with water to the brim (as in Fig. 2.31).
8. Gently lower the stone or metal with the thread tied to it into the displacement can.
9. Use a dry measuring cylinder to collect the water displaced from the displacement
can.
10. Read and record the volume of water collected.
11. Compare this volume with the one calculated previously.
IN-TEXT EXERCISE 2.5

1. Name the instruments that are used to measure the following quantities:
a. Thickness of a blade
b. Mass of a stone
c. Volume of a stone

2. Determine the least count of the following instruments used in the laboratory.
d. Micrometer screw gauge
e. Metre rule
f. Vernier calliper
g. Protractor
h. Analogue Voltmeter
2.6 - ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
• When measurements are made with instruments errors are likely to be made.

• Mistakes on the part of the individual such as:

1. Misreading scales
2. Poor arithmetic and computational skills
3. Wrongly transferring raw data into final report
4. Using the wrong theory and equations are definite sources of error but
they are not considered as measurement (or experimental) errors.

•A measurement (or experimental) error (or just referred to as an error) is not the
same as a mistake. An example of a mistake would be to measure the height of a
desk when asked to measure the height of a chair. It is just plain wrong!
• Errors in measurement are the discrepancies or uncertainties that
can occur when making measurements.
• Errors occur in every scientific investigation; they affect your
measured values, making them different from the accepted value
(sometimes called true value) of the item being measured.
• The accepted or true value is the actual value of the of the physical
property you are measuring. It is the value you would get if it were
possible to make the measurement with no measurement errors.
• When measurements are made with instruments errors are likely to
be made.
• Measurement errors can be classified into three types: systematic,
random and parallax errors.
i. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

• Systematic errors are errors introduced into an experiment by the

apparatus or the procedure and they show a bias or trend.
• They are errors with no pattern.
• They cause measurements to vary in an unpredictable manner.
• This means that a systematic error makes your reading too high every
time, or too low every time.
• A systematic error causes a random set of measurements to spread
about a value rather than being spread about the accepted value.
• Systematic errors result in a loss of accuracy.
• Taking repeated readings will not help account for this type of error.
• A simple example might be an ammeter that always reads too low.
• So, if your reading was , the true value for the current would be .
• A more complex example is not measuring to the centre of mass of a simple
pendulum bob.
•Systematic errors can result from:
1. Badly made instruments
2. Poorly calibrated instruments
3. An instrument having a zero error, from calibration
4. Poorly timed actions

• Zero errors are special examples of a systematic error.

• They are caused by an instrument giving a non-zero reading for a true zero value.
For example, the ammeter mentioned above is a type with zero error.
• When the current is it would read .
• Many ammeters and voltmeters have means of adjustment to remove
zero offset error.
• When you click a stop-watch, your reaction time for clicking at the
start and the finish of the measurement interval is a systematic error.
• The timing instrument and you are part of the system.
• Systematic errors can be eliminated or corrected before the
investigation is carried out on most occasions.
• They can be identified by comparison with accepted literature values.
• The problem with systematic errors is that they can be quite hard to
spot!
• When you found the source you then either redesign the experiment or
account for the error mathematically.
• This is quite easy to do.
Take for example a voltmeter where each reading is too large.
To find the corrected value you need to subtract 0.2 V from each of your
readings.
Recorded value/V Corrected value/V

2.8 2.6
6.4 6.2
10.8 10.6
15.4 15.2
KEY WORD

• A systematic error is an error introduced into an

experiment by the apparatus or the procedure and it
shows a bias or trend.
ii. RANDOM ERRORS

• Random errors are due to variations in the performance of the instrument

and the operator.
•Even when systematic errors have been allowed for, there exists random error.
• Random errors are error with no pattern or bias. They cause measurements to vary
in an unpredictable manner. Importantly, they cause your measurements to be
sometimes above the accepted value, sometimes below the accepted value.
• For example, if you were measuring the acceleration due to gravity, random errors
will cause your readings to vary both above and below the accepted value.
• The accepted value for acceleration due to gravity, (to 6 s.f.).
Recorded values of /

9.81 9.78 9.65 9.80 9.87 9.83

•Random errors can be caused by such things as:
1. Vibrations and air convection currents in mass readings
2. Temperature variations
3. Inaccurate reading of instrument (misreading)
4. Incorrect timing
5. Variations in the thickness of a surface being measured (thickness of a wire).
6. Not collecting enough data.
7. Using a less sensitive instrument when a more sensitive instrument is available.
8. Human parallax error (one has to view the scale of the meter in a direct line, and not to
the sides of the scale in order to minimize parallax error).
9. Errors due to wrong assumptions. For example, the value of acceleration due to gravity,
is assumed wrongly.

• One of the random errors is not revealed until a large sample of measurements is taken.
• So, taking a required number of readings/samples not only reveals random uncertainty but
also helps to reduce it.
•Consistent experimental procedures can minimize random uncertainty.
However, you should be aware that repeating measurements may reduce the
random error but at the same time, they may not reduce the systematic error.

•NOTE:
1. The effect of random errors can be reduced by:
a. Repeating the measurements more often.
b. Careful design of an experiment.
c. Choosing an instrument that has a higher degree of accuracy.

2. Random errors can never be eliminated.

3. The effects of random errors should mean that the measurements taken will be
distributed on either side of the mean - that is, fluctuations will be in both
directions.
• The diagram (fig. 2.32) below illustrates the distinction between systematic error
and random error.

Fig. 2.32 – systematic and random error

Activity 2.12: Testing random error with a ruler

1. Make yourself a ruler by cutting a strip of card 15.0 cm long.

2. Use your ruler to make several different length measurements of items in
your classroom and record your values. You must resist the temptation to
record your readings to the nearest mm. A suitable uncertainty will be to
the nearest 0.5 cm.
3. Repeat the experiment using a real ruler and record your values.
4. Compare your two set of recorded values

• You will find about half of your readings were too high, the other half
too low.
• This kind of random error happens with all measurements. Even those
taken with the real ruler will either be 0.5 mm too high or 0.5 mm too
low.
 iii. PARALLAX ERROR
• Parallax error is a phenomenon that occurs when the position of
an object appears to differ when viewed from different angles.
• This discrepancy is due to incorrect positioning of the eyes while
taking a reading on a measured scale.
• This is when the viewing angle is not being perpendicular to the
object being observed.
• In the use of a metre rule and in reading a scale of measurement like
the volume of a liquid in a measuring cylinder or burette, parallax
error can lead to inaccuracies in measurements and observations.
• Readings with the metre rule are made with the eye placed vertically above the mark
to be read in order to avoid errors due to parallax (fig. 2.33).

Fig. 2.33- Measuring length with a metre rule to avoid no parallax error

The best way to measure the length of a material with a metre rule is by placing one
end of the material against the 0 cm mark of the metre rule and reading the position of
the end of the material against the metre scale. Therefore, length of material = 1.5 cm.
•When measuring volumes, it is important to ensure that the graduated cylinder is
set up in a vertical position and that the eye is at the same level as the meniscus (or
curved surface) of the liquid as shown in fig. 2.34. which indicates the correct
position of the eye.

Fig. 2.34 - reading the volume of a liquid

DID YOU KNOW?

• Parallax is the name we give to an effect that you are familiar with in
life.
As you travel along a road, objects in the distance seem to shift
position relative to one another.
Because of your movement, a distant house may disappear behind a
nearer clump of trees, but as you travel further along it comes back
into view the other side of them.
That is parallax.
ACCURACY, PRECISION AND TORELANCE
1. ACCURACY
Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness of a measured quantity
to its true value.
It is therefore given as a percentage error.
In physics a measurement is said to be accurate if the systematic error
in the measurement is very small.
This means that in practice the measured value is very close to the
accepted value for that quantity (assuming that is known – it is not
always).
Experimental measurements are said to be not accurate if the
measurements are not close to the true value.
Accuracy depends on the magnitude of the measured quantity and the
precision of the instrument used.
 2. PRECISION
• Precision refers to the extent or limit of sensitivity of a given
measuring instrument to obtain the readings of the physical
quantity being measured.

• Experimental measurements are said to be precise if the

measurements have a small range.

• It also indicates the agreement among several measurements that have

been made in the same way.
• Example, readings of the same quantity that are close to each other are
considered precise.
Precision has two aspects:
(i) Degree of sensitivity of a scale, that is decided by the smallest division.
For example:
Readings for diameter, , by micrometer screw gauge: 12.06 mm, 2.05
mm, 12.08 mm
Readings using vernier calliper: 1.21 cm, 1.22 cm, 1.21 cm

(ii) Consistency of reading. Closeness of readings indicates precise values.

For example:
Person A: 1.21, 1.22, 1.22, 1.22………...in cm
Person B: 1.23, 1.28, 1.17, 1.25 ………in cm.
• A precise experiment is one which has a narrow spread of measured values
between the lower and upper limit of values.
• A measurement is said to be precise if the random error is small.

• As such, precise readings are not necessarily accurate readings.

• Example, if the zero reading of a micrometer screw gauge is not noted and
taken care of, measurements made using the gauge may be precise but
inaccurate.
• The readings may be higher (for positive zero error) or lower (for negative
zero error).
• This means in practice that when the measurement is repeated many times,
the individual values were close to each other.
Another data to illustrate the distinction between accuracy and precision is as
follows:
A student repeats an experiment three times and uses the results to calculate the
depth of a well. The values are shown in table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Results of measurement of depth

1st experiment 2nd experiment 3rd experiment
Depth/m 54.4 53.9 54.1

The true depth of the well is 36.0 m. The results may be described as precise but
not accurate.
The reasons for the inaccurate results are as follows:
 Reaction time between hearing the splash and stopping the stop-watch.
 The sound (of the splash) takes time to reach the student or the stone
hits the water at a different time than to the sound being heard or the
sound (of the flash) has to travel to the student.
 The student might not let go of the stone from ground level.
 The student might not let go of the stone and start the stop-watch at the
same time.
 Stop-watch may not be properly calibrated or has a zero error.
 (local value) is not (exactly) 9.81
 Stone given initial velocity (or initial velocity is not zero).
 Stone does not fall (exactly) vertically/in a straight line.
• We normally illustrate the concept of accuracy and precision using the
illustration in fig. 2.35. the stars (or plus) indicate the individual
measurements.
• The ‘true’ value is represented by the common centre of the four
circles, the ‘bulls – eye.’
• Measurements are precise if they are clustered together.
• They are accurate if they are close to the centre.
• The descriptions of the four diagrams are obvious; the bottom right
clearly shows the results are not precise because they are clustered
together.
• But they are accurate because their average value is roughly in the
centre.
Fig. 2.35 – Illustrations on accuracy and precision
3. TOLERANCE

Tolerance is a measure of the degree of precision of a

measuring device.
In the case of a stopwatch, an uncertainty of  0.1 s is commonly
used,

while for the metre rule 0.1 cm (1 mm),

vernier calliper scale 0.01 cm (0.1 mm) and

micrometer screw gauge 0.001 cm (0.01 mm).

Activity 2.11 – Making measurements with different instruments

Materials needed: metre rule, vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge, pendulum
bob, measuring cylinder half filled with water, notebooks, a beaker, piece of a
wood, test tube, slotted masses, zero and non-zero digital and analogue stopwatches,
digital and analogue voltmeter, dry cells, laboratory thermometer.
In groups,
1. Handle and consider all the equipment available and consider the use and
precision of each measuring instrument.
2. Measure the different lengths of objects such as table, notebook and piece of
wood, and the diameter of the beaker, test tube and pendulum bob using the
various types of instruments.
3. Measure the voltage across the terminals of the dry cells.
4. Identify and describe any patterns or inconsistencies or errors in the
measurements.
5. Use the protractor to measure angles and use the balance to weigh the objects.
6. Identify and describe any patterns or inconsistencies or errors in the
measurements.
7. Read and record the volume of the water in the measuring cylinder.
8. Measure the temperature of the water in a beaker.
9. Identify and describe any patterns or inconsistencies or errors in the
measurements.
10. Identify and describe any patterns or inconsistencies or errors in the
measurement.
11. Discuss how you would use an instrument to avoid the introduction of errors.
12. Discuss how you eliminated systematic, random and parallax errors in the use of
each of the measuring instruments.
13. Record all your findings and conclusions in your self-reflective journal.
14. Present your reports in class for discussion.
HOMEWORK AND FURTHER ICT ACTIVITY

In groups,
1. Use the internet and YouTube videos to research the measurement of
physical quantities and errors in measurement.
2. Investigate the use of ‘alonka’ in measuring volumes of items in the
Ghanaian market and the errors associated with this measurement
scale.
3. Record your findings in your self-reflective journal.
4. Present a report of your findings to the class for discussion
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
SUMMARY
 A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.
 Physical quantities can be classified as basic [fundamental] or derived quantities.
 A basic or fundamental quantity is a quantity which is independent of other
quantities.
 A derived quantity is a combination of fundamental quantities.
 Physical quantities can also be classified as scalar or vector quantities.
 A scalar quantity is a quantity which has only magnitude but no specified direction.
 A vector quantity is a quantity which has both magnitude and specified direction.
 Mathematics is an essential tool in physics. It is often referred to as the language of
physics.
 The “dimensions” of a physical quantity is the powers to which the fundamental
quantities of mass (M), length (L) and time (T) are raised [or it is the index of
each of the fundamental quantities of mass (M), length (L) and time (T) which
expresses that quantity].
 Dimensional analysis is used to:
(i) Determine the units of a physical quantity.
(ii) Check the correctness of a physics formula.
(iii) Establish a relationship between physical quantities.
 There are instruments for measuring, length, mass, time and volume.
 There are three types of errors. These are systematic error and random error and
parallel error.
i. A systematic error is an error introduced into an experiment by the apparatus
or the procedure and it shows a bias or trend.
ii. Random error is due to variations in the performance of the instrument and
the operator.
iii. Parallax error is a phenomenon that occurs when the position of an object
appears to differ when viewed from different angles. This discrepancy is due to
incorrect positioning of the eyes while taking a reading on a measured scale.
THANK YOU